Compilation of EHSQ COMMENTS

April 25, 2013, 8:35 pm

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REPAIR WORKS IN UREA SYNTHESIS REACTOR - ANTICORROSIVE LINING WITH TITANIUM

April 27, 2013, 7:18 am

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REPAIR WORKS IN UREA SYNTHESISREACTOR - ANTICORROSIVE LINING WITH TITANIUM

Processes for the production of urea normally used in industry comprise at least one section which operates at high temperatures and pressures (synthesis loop), at which the process fluids, i.e. water, ammonia and especially saline solutions, become particularly aggressive. Normal carbon steel is not capable of resisting the corrosion of these fluids at a high temperature and undergoes a progressive deterioration which weakens the structure causing external losses and even explosions.

Corrosion or erosion is particularly caused in urea reactors by contact with solutions of ammonium carbamate at the high temperatures and pressures necessary for the synthesis of urea. There are numerous metals and alloys capable of withstanding for sufficiently long periods, the potentially corrosive conditions arising inside a synthesis reactor of urea.

Anticorrosive titanium lining of urea reactor is obtained by the assembly of titanium element having adequate resistance to corrosion, so as to form, at the end, a hermetically sealed structure at the high operating pressure. Titanium material used for the protective lining is capable of tolerating contact with the process fluids without undergoing corrosion or alterations in urea reactor for prolonged periods.

TITANIUM LINING WORKS IN UREA REACTOR

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Control the Power of Your Lockout/Tagout Training

April 27, 2013, 7:21 am

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The objective of the following exercise is to evaluate authorized employees' understanding of hazardous energy sources and control of hazardous energy with lockout/tagout.

Instructions:

Discuss your workplace lockout/tagout program and procedures. Bring lockout/tagout devices that are used at your operation and review their uses.______________________________________________________
List the types of energy sources at your workplace. Identify the equipment at your workplace that needs to be locked out.
________________________________________________________
Discuss an incident or near miss when equipment accidentally started. What was the root cause? What was changed to prevent reoccurrence?
________________________________________________________
Choose a machine or piece of equipment subject to lockout/tagout. Identify all energy sources that have to be locked out/tagged out before anyone can service or repair the machine or equipment. Have an authorized employee demonstrate your company's specific shutdown and restart procedures.

Note any recommendations or observations during the exercise, and discuss them with the appropriate personnel.

Guidance

The following are examples of lockout/tagout and restart procedures.
The lockout/tagout procedures must include the following steps:

Preparing for shutdown,
Shutting down the machine(s) or equipment,
Isolating the machine or equipment from the energy source(s),
Supplying the lockout or tagout device(s) to the energy-isolating device(s),
Safely releasing all potentially hazardous stored or residual energy, and
Verifying the isolation of the machine(s) or equipment before the start of service or maintenance work.

In addition, before lockout or tagout devices are removed and energy is restored to the machines or equipment, certain steps must be taken to reenergize equipment after service is completed, including:

Ensuring that machines or equipment components are operationally intact; and
Notifying affected employees that lockout or tagout devices are removed from each energy-isolating device by the employee who applied the device.

Remember

All employees must understand the purpose, function, and restrictions of the energy control program and understand that authorized employees possess the knowledge and skills necessary for the safe application, use, and removal of energy controls.

Why It Matters

Almost 3 million workers in the United States are at risk every day from uncontrolled energy when servicing equipment—there are roughly 3,600 disabling and 4,000 nondisabling electrical contact injuries every year.
In many cases, injuries could have been avoided by simply turning off equipment.
According to a recent survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 80% of workers fail to turn off equipment before performing service work.
In a recent year, more employers failed to comply with OSHA's strict lockout/tagout regulations than any other standard except hazard communication.

↧

Mega-capacity Urea Plants – TEC’s Approach

April 27, 2013, 7:34 am

≫ Next: Health and safety at work: workers' and employers' agreement is helping to deal with stress at work Over the last ten years, work-related stress has increased in nine Member States and has only fallen in Sweden. Studies suggest that between 50% and 60% of all lost working days are related to stress. In France for example, the cost of stress has been reported to reach at least €2 to €3 billion each year. In the UK it's estimated that 10 million working days are lost due to anxiety, stress and depression linked to work. The direct costs related to stress at work are now estimated to be as high as 4% of EU GDP. In response to these developments, European workers' and employers' representatives reached an agreement in 2004 to ensure a minimum level of protection against stress at work. The European Commission has published an evaluation of this agreement, concluding that it has had positive effects where implemented. In particular, employers' and workers' efforts have led to policy developments in 12 Member States where little had been done before. Although the agreement has not been implemented evenly in all countries, 19 Member States now have legislation or binding collective agreements that address stress or other psychological risks at work. Presenting the new report, László Andor, EU Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, said: “Here we see how a European agreement followed up by employers and workers at national level can concretely improve working conditions in Europe. He added: "We know that stress can be a structural problem related to work organisation rather than to individuals, which is why the social partners are often best placed to take action in this area. I call on employers and workers to continue their positive work and address shortcomings, particularly in those countries where joint action has been limited so far.” The 2004 social partner agreement – concluded by all cross-industry European social partners (Business Europe, UEAPME, CEEP and ETUC) – aims to raise awareness of work-related stress and provide a framework for action. The role of employers is to identify risk factors for stress and to try to match responsibility better with skills; consult workers on restructuring and new technologies; and to provide support to individuals and teams. The Commission's evaluation of the agreement concludes that the 2004 agreement has successfully triggered social dialogue and policy developments in the field of occupational stress in most Member States. The rules on work-related stress have been enshrined in different ways through collective or general social partner agreements, guidelines or legislation. In many countries, the social partners complemented action with effective awareness-raising campaigns and practical instruments, such as stress assessment tools and training. At the same time, the agreement has not been implemented evenly throughout Europe. Social partners in Malta, Cyprus, Poland and Slovenia have not reported on the follow-up to their commitments and results in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Estonia have fallen short of expectations. The report emphasises how improvements must be made across the board. According to social partners, while individuals are ‘well adapted to cope with short-term exposure to pressure’, prolonged exposure to stressful situations can do significant damage. The most important stress factors are work demands, room for manoeuvre, social relations, emotional demands, value and ethical conflicts and employment insecurity. Over time, these factors have increased. For instance, the share of workers reporting that they work to tight deadlines or at high working speed at least a quarter of their time rose from 50% in 1991 to over 60% in 2005 and has remained stable since then. Background In 2002, during a social partner consultation, the Commission highlighted the need for a minimum level of protection of workers against work-related stress building on the general provisions of the EU Health and Safety Framework Directive (Directive 89/391/EEC). The European social partners chose to deal with this through a European autonomous framework agreement, as provided for by Article 155 of the Lisbon Treaty. These agreements can be implemented either through EU legislation or via the action of national affiliates of EU social partners, in line with traditions and practices specific to each Member State. At EU level, there are four agreements implemented by workers' and employers' representatives covering telework, stress at work, violence and harassment and inclusive labour markets. The agreement on stress at work is the second agreement of this kind..

≪ Previous: Control the Power of Your Lockout/Tagout Training

Mega-capacity Urea Plants

– TEC’s Approach

H. M

ORIKAWA

, E. S

AKATA

, Y. K

OJIMA

, G. N

ISHIKAWA

Toyo Engineering Corporation

2-8-1 Akanehama, Narashin

o-shi, Chiba 275-0024, Japan

In accordance with increased production capacity of the recent ammonia plants, the

production capacity of urea plant also becomes large. To meet such demands, TEC

has established the design of 3,500 metric tons per day (mtpd) urea plants based on

the ACES Urea Process by confirming all considerable aspects of process, equipment

fabrication, construction and so forth.This paper reports how TEC evaluates the

investigation results and concluded thatthe Mega-capacity Urea Plantdesign and construction in comparison with currentlyoperated 1,750 mtpd ACES Process urea plants can be realized.

2002_Mega-capacity_Urea_Plants.pdf
884K View Download

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Health and safety at work: workers' and employers' agreement is helping to deal with stress at work Over the last ten years, work-related stress has increased in nine Member States and has only fallen in Sweden. Studies suggest that between 50% and 60% of all lost working days are related to stress. In France for example, the cost of stress has been reported to reach at least €2 to €3 billion each year. In the UK it's estimated that 10 million working days are lost due to anxiety, stress and depression linked to work. The direct costs related to stress at work are now estimated to be as high as 4% of EU GDP. In response to these developments, European workers' and employers' representatives reached an agreement in 2004 to ensure a minimum level of protection against stress at work. The European Commission has published an evaluation of this agreement, concluding that it has had positive effects where implemented. In particular, employers' and workers' efforts have led to policy developments in 12 Member States where little had been done before. Although the agreement has not been implemented evenly in all countries, 19 Member States now have legislation or binding collective agreements that address stress or other psychological risks at work. Presenting the new report, László Andor, EU Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, said: “Here we see how a European agreement followed up by employers and workers at national level can concretely improve working conditions in Europe. He added: "We know that stress can be a structural problem related to work organisation rather than to individuals, which is why the social partners are often best placed to take action in this area. I call on employers and workers to continue their positive work and address shortcomings, particularly in those countries where joint action has been limited so far.” The 2004 social partner agreement – concluded by all cross-industry European social partners (Business Europe, UEAPME, CEEP and ETUC) – aims to raise awareness of work-related stress and provide a framework for action. The role of employers is to identify risk factors for stress and to try to match responsibility better with skills; consult workers on restructuring and new technologies; and to provide support to individuals and teams. The Commission's evaluation of the agreement concludes that the 2004 agreement has successfully triggered social dialogue and policy developments in the field of occupational stress in most Member States. The rules on work-related stress have been enshrined in different ways through collective or general social partner agreements, guidelines or legislation. In many countries, the social partners complemented action with effective awareness-raising campaigns and practical instruments, such as stress assessment tools and training. At the same time, the agreement has not been implemented evenly throughout Europe. Social partners in Malta, Cyprus, Poland and Slovenia have not reported on the follow-up to their commitments and results in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Estonia have fallen short of expectations. The report emphasises how improvements must be made across the board. According to social partners, while individuals are ‘well adapted to cope with short-term exposure to pressure’, prolonged exposure to stressful situations can do significant damage. The most important stress factors are work demands, room for manoeuvre, social relations, emotional demands, value and ethical conflicts and employment insecurity. Over time, these factors have increased. For instance, the share of workers reporting that they work to tight deadlines or at high working speed at least a quarter of their time rose from 50% in 1991 to over 60% in 2005 and has remained stable since then. Background In 2002, during a social partner consultation, the Commission highlighted the need for a minimum level of protection of workers against work-related stress building on the general provisions of the EU Health and Safety Framework Directive (Directive 89/391/EEC). The European social partners chose to deal with this through a European autonomous framework agreement, as provided for by Article 155 of the Lisbon Treaty. These agreements can be implemented either through EU legislation or via the action of national affiliates of EU social partners, in line with traditions and practices specific to each Member State. At EU level, there are four agreements implemented by workers' and employers' representatives covering telework, stress at work, violence and harassment and inclusive labour markets. The agreement on stress at work is the second agreement of this kind..

April 27, 2013, 7:31 pm

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IP/11/223

Brussels, 24 February 2011

Health and safety at work: workers' and employers' agreement is helping to deal with stress at work

Over the last ten years, work-related stress has increased in nine Member States and has only fallen in Sweden. Studies suggest that between 50% and 60% of all lost working days are related to stress. In France for example, the cost of stress has been reported to reach at least €2 to €3 billion each year. In the UK it's estimated that 10 million working days are lost due to anxiety, stress and depression linked to work. The direct costs related to stress at work are now estimated to be as high as 4% of EU GDP. In response to these developments, European workers' and employers' representatives reached an agreement in 2004 to ensure a minimum level of protection against stress at work. The European Commission has published an evaluation of this agreement, concluding that it has had positive effects where implemented. In particular, employers' and workers' efforts have led to policy developments in 12 Member States where little had been done before. Although the agreement has not been implemented evenly in all countries, 19 Member States now have legislation or binding collective agreements that address stress or other psychological risks at work.

Presenting the new report, László Andor, EU Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, said: “Here we see how a European agreement followed up by employers and workers at national level can concretely improve working conditions in Europe. He added: "We know that stress can be a structural problem related to work organisation rather than to individuals, which is why the social partners are often best placed to take action in this area. I call on employers and workers to continue their positive work and address shortcomings, particularly in those countries where joint action has been limited so far.”

The 2004 social partner agreement – concluded by all cross-industry European social partners (Business Europe, UEAPME, CEEP and ETUC) – aims to raise awareness of work-related stress and provide a framework for action. The role of employers is to identify risk factors for stress and to try to match responsibility better with skills; consult workers on restructuring and new technologies; and to provide support to individuals and teams.

The Commission's evaluation of the agreement concludes that the 2004 agreement has successfully triggered social dialogue and policy developments in the field of occupational stress in most Member States. The rules on work-related stress have been enshrined in different ways through collective or general social partner agreements, guidelines or legislation. In many countries, the social partners complemented action with effective awareness-raising campaigns and practical instruments, such as stress assessment tools and training.

At the same time, the agreement has not been implemented evenly throughout Europe. Social partners in Malta, Cyprus, Poland and Slovenia have not reported on the follow-up to their commitments and results in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Estonia have fallen short of expectations. The report emphasises how improvements must be made across the board.

According to social partners, while individuals are ‘well adapted to cope with short-term exposure to pressure’, prolonged exposure to stressful situations can do significant damage. The most important stress factors are work demands, room for manoeuvre, social relations, emotional demands, value and ethical conflicts and employment insecurity. Over time, these factors have increased. For instance, the share of workers reporting that they work to tight deadlines or at high working speed at least a quarter of their time rose from 50% in 1991 to over 60% in 2005 and has remained stable since then.

Background

In 2002, during a social partner consultation, the Commission highlighted the need for a minimum level of protection of workers against work-related stress building on the general provisions of the EU Health and Safety Framework Directive (Directive 89/391/EEC). The European social partners chose to deal with this through a European autonomous framework agreement, as provided for by Article 155 of the Lisbon Treaty. These agreements can be implemented either through EU legislation or via the action of national affiliates of EU social partners, in line with traditions and practices specific to each Member State.

At EU level, there are four agreements implemented by workers' and employers' representatives covering telework, stress at work, violence and harassment and inclusive labour markets. The agreement on stress at work is the second agreement of this kind..

↧

United Nations World Day for Safety and Health at Work 28 April

April 27, 2013, 7:33 pm

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≪ Previous: Health and safety at work: workers' and employers' agreement is helping to deal with stress at work Over the last ten years, work-related stress has increased in nine Member States and has only fallen in Sweden. Studies suggest that between 50% and 60% of all lost working days are related to stress. In France for example, the cost of stress has been reported to reach at least €2 to €3 billion each year. In the UK it's estimated that 10 million working days are lost due to anxiety, stress and depression linked to work. The direct costs related to stress at work are now estimated to be as high as 4% of EU GDP. In response to these developments, European workers' and employers' representatives reached an agreement in 2004 to ensure a minimum level of protection against stress at work. The European Commission has published an evaluation of this agreement, concluding that it has had positive effects where implemented. In particular, employers' and workers' efforts have led to policy developments in 12 Member States where little had been done before. Although the agreement has not been implemented evenly in all countries, 19 Member States now have legislation or binding collective agreements that address stress or other psychological risks at work. Presenting the new report, László Andor, EU Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, said: “Here we see how a European agreement followed up by employers and workers at national level can concretely improve working conditions in Europe. He added: "We know that stress can be a structural problem related to work organisation rather than to individuals, which is why the social partners are often best placed to take action in this area. I call on employers and workers to continue their positive work and address shortcomings, particularly in those countries where joint action has been limited so far.” The 2004 social partner agreement – concluded by all cross-industry European social partners (Business Europe, UEAPME, CEEP and ETUC) – aims to raise awareness of work-related stress and provide a framework for action. The role of employers is to identify risk factors for stress and to try to match responsibility better with skills; consult workers on restructuring and new technologies; and to provide support to individuals and teams. The Commission's evaluation of the agreement concludes that the 2004 agreement has successfully triggered social dialogue and policy developments in the field of occupational stress in most Member States. The rules on work-related stress have been enshrined in different ways through collective or general social partner agreements, guidelines or legislation. In many countries, the social partners complemented action with effective awareness-raising campaigns and practical instruments, such as stress assessment tools and training. At the same time, the agreement has not been implemented evenly throughout Europe. Social partners in Malta, Cyprus, Poland and Slovenia have not reported on the follow-up to their commitments and results in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Estonia have fallen short of expectations. The report emphasises how improvements must be made across the board. According to social partners, while individuals are ‘well adapted to cope with short-term exposure to pressure’, prolonged exposure to stressful situations can do significant damage. The most important stress factors are work demands, room for manoeuvre, social relations, emotional demands, value and ethical conflicts and employment insecurity. Over time, these factors have increased. For instance, the share of workers reporting that they work to tight deadlines or at high working speed at least a quarter of their time rose from 50% in 1991 to over 60% in 2005 and has remained stable since then. Background In 2002, during a social partner consultation, the Commission highlighted the need for a minimum level of protection of workers against work-related stress building on the general provisions of the EU Health and Safety Framework Directive (Directive 89/391/EEC). The European social partners chose to deal with this through a European autonomous framework agreement, as provided for by Article 155 of the Lisbon Treaty. These agreements can be implemented either through EU legislation or via the action of national affiliates of EU social partners, in line with traditions and practices specific to each Member State. At EU level, there are four agreements implemented by workers' and employers' representatives covering telework, stress at work, violence and harassment and inclusive labour markets. The agreement on stress at work is the second agreement of this kind..

Theme 2013: Prevention of occupational diseases

The World Day for Safety and Health at Work is an annual international campaign to promote safe, healthy and decent work. It is held on 28 April and has been observed by the International Labour Organization (ILO) since 2003.
28 April has also for long been associated with the world's trade union movement's commemoration of the victims of occupational accidents and diseases.
Worldwide, occupational diseases continue to be the leading cause of work-related deaths. According to ILO estimates, out of 2.34 million occupational fatalities every year, only 321,000 are due to accidents. The remaining 2.02 million deaths are caused by various types of work-related diseases, which correspond to a daily average of more than 5,500 deaths. This is an unacceptable Decent Work deficit.
The inadequate prevention of occupational diseases has profound negative effects not only on workers and their families but also on society at large due to the tremendous costs that it generates; particularly, in terms of loss of productivity and burdening of social security systems. Prevention is more effective and less costly than treatment and rehabilitation. All countries can take concrete steps now to improve their capacity for preventing occupational diseases.

As every year, the ILO Programme on Safety and Health at Work and the Environment prepared a report to serve as a background to the theme, a poster and other promotional material for the occasion. This report for the World Day for Safety and Health at Work outlines the current situation concerning occupational diseases and presents proposals for addressing this serious Decent Work deficit.

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History of 28 April Why 28 April?

April 27, 2013, 7:38 pm

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History of 28 April

Why 28 April?

In 2003, the International Labour Organization (ILO), began to observe World Day in order to stress the prevention of accidents and diseases at work, capitalizing on the ILO's traditional strengths of tripartism and social dialogue.
This celebration is an integral part of the Global Strategy on Occupational Safety and Health of the ILO, as documented in the Conclusions of the International Labour Conference in June 2003. One of the main pillars of the Global Strategy is advocacy, the World Day for Safety and Health at Work is a significant tool to raise awareness of how to make work safe and healthy and of the need to raise the political profile of occupational safety and health.
28 April is also the International Commemoration Day for Dead and Injured Workers organized worldwide by the trade union movement since 1996.

Prevention of occupational accidents and diseases

Safety and health at work

Every 15 seconds, a worker dies from a work-related accident or disease.
Every 15 seconds, 160 workers have a work-related accident.

The annual World Day for Safety and Health at Work on 28 April promotes the prevention of occupational accidents and diseases globally. It is an awareness-raising campaign intended to focus international attention on the magnitude of the problem and on how promoting and creating a safety and health culture can help reduce the number of work-related deaths and injuries.
Each of us is responsible for stopping deaths and injuries on the job. As governments we are responsible for providing the infrastructure — laws and services — necessary to ensure that workers remain employable and that enterprises flourish; this includes the development of a national policy and programme and a system of inspection to enforce compliance with occupational safety and health legislation and policy. As employers we are responsible for ensuring that the working environment is safe and healthy. As workers we are responsible to work safely and to protect ourselves and not to endanger others, to know our rights and to participate in the implementation of preventive measures.

Emerging risks at work

New and emerging occupational risks may be caused by technical innovation or by social or organizational change, such as:

New technologies and production processes, e.g. nanotechnology, biotechnology
New working conditions, e.g. higher workloads, work intensification from downsizing, poor conditions associated with migration for work, jobs in the informal economy
Emerging forms of employment, e.g. self-employment, outsourcing, temporary contracts

They may be more widely recognized through better scientific understanding, e.g. the effects of ergonomic risks on musculoskeletal disorders.
They may be influenced by changes in perceptions about the importance of certain risk factors, e.g. the effects of psychosocial factors on work-related stress.

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water quantities:

April 28, 2013, 3:16 am

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1. As oceans are very wide and there are multiple to be found on earth, oceans store most of the earth's water. This is apparently 97% of the total amount of water on earth, 2% of which is frozen.

2. 80% of the earth's water is surface water. The other 20% is either ground water or atmospheric water vapour.

3. Of all the water on earth, only 2,5% is fresh water. Fresh water is either groundwater (0,5%), or readily accessible water in lakes, streams, rivers, etc. (0,01%).

4. If all the world's water were fit into a gallon jug, the fresh water available for us to use would equal only about one tablespoon.

5. Over 90% of the world's supply of fresh water is located in Antarctica.

6. Less than 1% of the water supply on earth can be used as drinking water.

7. The earth's total amount of water has a volume of about 344 million cubic miles.
· 315 million cubic miles is seawater.
· 9 million cubic miles is groundwater in aquifers.
· 7 million cubic miles is frozen in polar ice caps.
· 53,000 cubic miles of water pass through the planet's lakes and streams.
· 4,000 cubic miles of water is atmospheric moisture.
· 3,400 cubic miles of water are locked within the bodies of living things.

8. Approximately 66% of the human body consists of water. Water exists within all our organs and it is transported throughout our body to assist physical functions.

9. The total amount of water in the body of an average adult is 37 litres.

10. Human brains are 75% water.

11. Human bones are 25% water.

12. Human blood is 83% water.

13. 75% of a chicken is water.

14. 80% of a pineapple is water.

15. 95% of a tomato is water.

16. 70% of an elephant is water.

17. Each day the sun evaporates a trillion tons of water.

18. A single tree will give off 265 liters (70 gallons) of water per day in evaporation.

19. An acre of corn will give off 15,000 litres (4,000 gallons) of water per day in evaporation.

20. A small drip from a faucet can waste as much as 75 litres of water a day.

21. The amount of water we deliver on a hot summer day, 308 million litres (80 million gallons), could fill 1.28 billion cups of coffee.

About water & health:

1. A person can live about a month without food, but only about a week without water. If a human does not absorb enough water dehydration is the result.

2. A person must consume 2 litres of water daily to live healthily. Humans drink an average of 75.000 litres of water throughout their life.

3. Humans cannot drink salt water.

4. More than 2 billion people on earth do not have a safe supply of water.

5. Water regulates the temperature of the human body. If you have caught a fever you should drink lots of water.

6. Water removes waste from the human body.

7. You should never drink water straight from a lake or river, as it can be damaging to your health.

8. If you live in an old house with lead pipelines you could get health problems. Due to weathering of the pipelines lead can end up in your tap water.

9. Your drinking water may be fluoridated to help prevent dental cavities.

10. Water leaves the stomach five minutes after consumption.

11. Centres for Disease Control receive notification of more than 4,000 cases per year of illness due to drinking water contamination.

12. A quarter of the world's population is without safe drinking water.
13. Water can cause serious health damage when it is contaminated by bacteria and other microrganisms.

14. In most cities and towns, drinking water from the tap is treated so that people don't get sick with diseases such as cholera and typhoid, which are caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites found naturally in the water.

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water use and saving water:

April 28, 2013, 3:18 am

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1. Humans use more and more water each year.

2. Americans use five times the amount of water that Europeans use.

3. Humans daily use about 190 litres (50 gallons) of water.

4. A person pays about 25 cents for water use on a daily basis.

5. Two thirds of the water used in a home is used in the bathroom.

6. To flush a toilet we use 7.5 to 26.5 litres (2 to 7 gallons) of water.

7. In a five-minute shower we use 95 to 190 litres (25 to 50 gallons) of water.

8. To brush your teeth you use 7.5 litres (2 gallons) of water.

9. For an automatic dishwasher 35 to 45 litres (9 to 12 gallons) of water is used.

10. Saving a bottle of cold water in the fridge is better that taking it from the tap, because it saves time and water.

11. While brushing your teeth, instead of leaving the tap running, you should fill up a glass to rinse your mouth.

12. Baths use less water than a typical shower. Soaking in a partially filled tub will use less water than a short shower.

13. The average person spends less than 1 % of his or her total personal expenditure dollars for water, wastewater, and water disposal services.

14. Less than 1% of the water treated by public water systems is used for drinking and cooking.

15. Bottled water can be up to 1000 times more expensive than tap water and it may not be as safe.

16. Today, at least 400 million people live in regions with severe water shortages.

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Water pollution and related problems:

April 28, 2013, 3:19 am

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1. Humans largely influence the factors that determine water quality, as they depose off their waste in water and add all kinds of substances and contaminants that are not naturally present. We now know more than 70.000 water pollutants.
2. About 450 cubic kilometres of wastewater are carried into coastal areas by rivers and streams every year. These pollution loads require an additional 6,000 cubic kilometres of freshwater to dilute the pollution. This amount equals to two-thirds of the world's total stable run-off.

3. Public water supplies must meet or exceed certain standards. The kind of standards that are used differ for each country. Many public water supplies consistently supply water that is much better than the minimum standards.

4. Four litres (1 gallon) of gasoline can contaminate approximately 2.8 million litres (750,000 gallons) of water.

5. Groundwater supplies serve about 80% of the population, whereas up to 4% of usable groundwater is already polluted.

6. There are 12,000 different toxic chemical compounds in industrial use today, and more than 500 new chemicals are developed each year.

7. Over 70,000 different water contaminants have been identified.

8. Each day almost 10,000 children under the age of 5 in Third World countries die as a result of illnesses contracted by use of impure water.

9. Today, drinking water meets over a hundred different standards for drinking water quality.

10. The principal sources of contamination are associated with the post World War II chemical age.

11. If all new sources of contamination could be eliminated, in 10 years, 98% of all available groundwater would then be free of pollution.

12. Most of the world's people must walk at least 3 hours to fetch water.

13. Freshwater animals are disappearing five times faster than land animals.

↧

What is water pollution?

April 28, 2013, 3:24 am

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What is water pollution?

Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses or lives (in) it. When humans drink polluted water it often has serious effects on their health. Water pollution can also make water unsuited for the desired use.

What are the major water pollutants? There are several classes of water pollutants. The first are disease-causing agents. These are bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter sewage systems and untreated waste.
A second category of water pollutants is oxygen-demanding wastes; wastes that can be decomposed by oxygen-requiring bacteria. When large populations of decomposing bacteria are converting these wastes it can deplete oxygen levels in the water. This causes other organisms in the water, such as fish, to die.
A third class of water pollutants is water-soluble inorganic pollutants, such as acids, salts and toxic metals. Large quantities of these compounds will make water unfit to drink and will cause the death of aquatic life.
Another class of water pollutants are nutrients; they are water-soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other water plants, which deplete the water's oxygen supply. This kills fish and, when found in drinking water, can kill young children.
Water can also be polluted by a number of organic compounds such as oil, plastics and pesticides, which are harmful to humans and all plants and animals in the water.
A very dangerous category is suspended sediment, because it causes depletion in the water's light absorption and the particles spread dangerous compounds such as pesticides through the water.
Finally, water-soluble radioactive compounds can cause cancer, birth defects and genetic damage and are thus very dangerous water pollutants.

Where does water pollution come from? Water pollution is usually caused by human activities. Different human sources add to the pollution of water. There are two sorts of sources, point and nonpoint sources. Point sources discharge pollutants at specific locations through pipelines or sewers into the surface water. Nonpoint sources are sources that cannot be traced to a single site of discharge.
Examples of point sources are: factories, sewage treatment plants, underground mines, oil wells, oil tankers and agriculture.
Examples of nonpoint sources are: acid deposition from the air, traffic, pollutants that are spread through rivers and pollutants that enter the water through groundwater.
Nonpoint pollution is hard to control because the perpetrators cannot be traced.

How do we detect water pollution?

Water pollution is detected in laboratories, where small samples of water are analysed for different contaminants. Living organisms such as fish can also be used for the detection of water pollution. Changes in their behaviour or growth show us, that the water they live in is polluted. Specific properties of these organisms can give information on the sort of pollution in their environment. Laboratories also use computer models to determine what dangers there can be in certain waters. They import the data they own on the water into the computer, and the computer then determines if the water has any impurities.

What is heat pollution, what causes it and what are the dangers?

In most manufacturing processes a lot of heat originates that must be released into the environment, because it is waste heat. The cheapest way to do this is to withdraw nearby surface water, pass it through the plant, and return the heated water to the body of surface water. The heat that is released in the water has negative effects on all life in the receiving surface water. This is the kind of pollution that is commonly known as heat pollution or thermal pollution.
The warmer water decreases the solubility of oxygen in the water and it also causes water organisms to breathe faster. Many water organisms will then die from oxygen shortages, or they become more susceptible to diseases.

What is eutrophication, what causes it and what are the dangers?

Eutrophication means natural nutrient enrichment of streams and lakes. The enrichment is often increased by human activities, such as agriculture (manure addition). Over time, lakes then become eutrophic due to an increase in nutrients.
Eutrophication is mainly caused by an increase in nitrate and phosphate levels and has a negative influence on water life. This is because, due to the enrichment, water plants such as algae will grow extensively. As a result the water will absorb less light and certain aerobic bacteria will become more active. These bacteria deplete oxygen levels even further, so that only anaerobic bacteria can be active. This makes life in the water impossible for fish and other organisms.

What is acid rain and how does it develop?

Typical rainwater has a pH of about 5 to 6. This means that it is naturally a neutral, slightly acidic liquid. During precipitation rainwater dissolves gasses such as carbon dioxide and oxygen. The industry now emits great amounts of acidifying gasses, such as sulphuric oxides and carbon monoxide. These gasses also dissolve in rainwater. This causes a change in pH of the precipitation – the pH of rain will fall to a value of or below 4. When a substance has a pH of below 6.5, it is acid. The lower the pH, the more acid the substance is. That is why rain with a lower pH, due to dissolved industrial emissions, is called acid rain.

Why does water sometimes smell like rotten eggs?

When water is enriched with nutrients, eventually anaerobic bacteria, which do not need oxygen to practice their functions, will become highly active. These bacteria produce certain gasses during their activities. One of these gases is hydrogen sulphide. This compounds smells like rotten eggs. When water smells like rotten eggs we can conclude that there is hydrogen present, due to a shortage of oxygen in the specific water.

What causes white deposit on showers and bathroom walls?

Water contains many compounds. A few of these compounds are calcium and carbonate. Carbonate works as a buffer in water and is thus a very important component.
When calcium reacts with carbonate a solid substance is formed, that is called lime. This lime is what causes the white deposit on showers and bathroom walls and is commonly known as lime deposit. It can be removed by using a specially suited cleaning agent.

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What is water?

April 28, 2013, 3:40 am

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Water is a very important substance, as it makes up the larger part of an organism's body. But what exactly is water? Inside the body of a human being there is a skeleton, which makes your body solid and makes sure you can stand up without falling apart. Water is also a kind of skeleton. It consists of tiny particles, the atoms, just like every other substance on earth. One of these atoms is called hydrogen and the other is called oxygen. As you probably know the air that we breathe also contains oxygen. One particle of water is called a molecule. When lots of water molecules melt together we can see the water and drink it or use it, for instance to flush a toilet.

How is a water molecule built up?

A water molecule consists of three atoms; an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, which are bond together like little magnets. The atoms consist of matter that has a nucleus in the centre.
The difference between atoms is expressed by atomic numbers. The atomic number of an atom depends on the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. Protons are small positively charged particles. Hydrogen has one proton in the nucleus and oxygen has eight. There are also uncharged particles in the nucleus, called neutrons.
Next to protons and neutrons, atoms also consist of negatively charged electrons, which can be found in the electron cloud around the nucleus. The number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons in the nucleus. The attraction between the protons and electrons is what keeps an atom together.

How much does a water molecule weigh?

The weight of a molecule is determined by the atomic masses of the atoms that it is built of. The atomic mass of an atom is determined by the addition of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, because the electrons hardly weigh anything. When the atomic masses of the separate atoms are known, one simply has to add them up to find the total atomic mass of a molecule, expressed in grams per mol. A mol is an expression of the molair weight of a molecule, derived from the weight of a hydrogen molecule, which is 1 mol.
Hydrogen has a relative atomic mass of 1 g/ mol and oxygen has a relative atomic mass of 16 g/ mol. Water consists of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. This means that the mass of a water molecule is 1g + 1g + 16g = 18 g/ mol.
When the number of moles of water is known, one can calculate how many grams of weight this is, by using the molar weight of water.

In what states (phases) can water be found?

Water exists in three states: solid, liquid and gaseous. At a normal temperature of about 25^oC it is liquid, but below 0^oC it will freeze and turn to ice. Water can be found in the gaseous state above 100^oC, this is called the boiling point of water, at which water starts to evaporate. The water turns to gas and is then odourless and colourless.
How fast water evaporates depends on the temperature; if the temperature is high, water will evaporate sooner.

What happens if water changes phase?

The phase changes of water

The changes from a liquid to a solid or to a gas are called phase changes. When a substance such as water changes phase, its physical appearance changes, but not its chemical properties. This is because the chemical structure remains the same, but the molecules of which it consists will float a little further apart. In the solid state the water molecules are fairly close together, but in the liquid state they are a bit further apart. The water becomes liquid as a result of parting molecules. When water changes from liquid to gas the molecules will part even further, that is why we cannot detect it.

Why does ice float on water?

When substances freeze, usually the molecules come closer together. Water has an abnormality there: it freezes below 0^oC, but when temperatures goes below 4^oC, water starts to expand again and as a result the density becomes lower. Density of a substance means the weight in kilograms of a cubic metre of a substance. When two substances are mixed but do not dissolve in one another, the substance with the lowest density floats on the other substance. In this case that substance is ice, due to the decreased density of water.

How come not all substances are water-soluble?

Polarity determines if a substance is water-soluble. A polair substance is a substance that has two kinds of 'poles', as in a magnet. When another substance is also polair the poles of the substances attract each other and as a result the substances mix. A substance then dissolves in water.
Substances that contain no 'poles' are called apolair substances. Oil for instance is an apolair substance, which is why oil does not dissolve in water. In fact it floats on water, just like ice, due to its smaller density.

What is hard water?

When water is referred to as 'hard' this simply means, that it contains more minerals than ordinary water. These are especially the minerals calcium and magnesium. The degree of hardness of the water exceeds, when more calcium and magnesium dissolve.
Magnesium and calcium are positively charged ions. Because of their presence, other positively charged substances will dissolve less easy in hard water than in water that does not contain calcium and magnesium. This is the cause of the fact that soap doesn't really dissolve in hard water.

What are physical and chemical properties?

Physical properties of a substance are properties that have everything to do with the substance's appearance. Chemical properties are properties that are often used in chemistry, to address the state of a substance. Physical and chemical properties can tell us something about the behaviour of a substance in certain circumstances.

Which physical and chemical properties does water have?

There are several different physical and chemical properties, which are often used alternately. We can name the following:
- Density. The density of water means the weight of a certain amount of water. It is usually expressed in kilograms per cubic metre. (physical)
- Thermal properties. This refers to what happens to water when it is heated; at which temperature it becomes gaseous and that sort of thing. (physical)
- Conductivity. This means the amount of electricity that water can conduct. It is expressed in a chemical magnitude. (physical)
- Light absorption. This is the amount of light a certain amount of water can absorb over time. (chemical)
- Viscosity. This means the syrupiness of water and it determines the mobility of water. When the temperature rises, the viscosity degrades; this means that water will be more mobile at higher temperatures. (physical)
- The pH. The pH has its own scale, running up from 1 to 14. The pH shows whether a substance is acid (pH 1-6), neutral (pH 7) or basic (pH 8-14). The number of hydrogen atoms in the substance determines the pH. The more hydrogen atoms a substance contains, the lower the pH will be. A substance that contains many hydrogen atoms is acid. We can measure the pH by dipping a special colouring paper in the substance, the colours shows which pH the substance has. (chemical)
- Alkalinity. This is the capacity of water to neutralize an acid or a base, so that the pH of the water will not change. (chemical)

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PCB to set up station for real time data on pollution

April 28, 2013, 6:06 am

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The station to record levels of various harmful gases

A real time Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Station (CAAQMS) will come in the city soon. The Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) will set up the station on the premises of Vijayawada Municipal Corporation (VMC) Guest House on Bandar Road.

The real time CAAQMS will generate a comprehensive real time data, which helps in analysing the pollution levels.

The PCB is contemplating arranging a digital display board to inform the people about the pollution in the city. The people can have real-time data if PCB plans are successful.

The station, being set up with Central Pollution Control Board assistance, will record the levels of various harmful gases, including carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, benzene, toluene and xylene, on an hourly basis. Meteorological parameters like wind speed, wind direction, temperature, relative humidity and solar radiation are subjects of study at the station, according to PCB officials.

The PCB, hitherto, has been monitoring the ambient air quality at three locations at Benz Circle, Police control Room (PCR) and Autonagar Industrial area. The CAAQM is an advanced system to asses the pollution in the city. The CAAQM station is one of the six proposed in the State. Other places to get this facility are Hyderabad (2), Visakhapatnam (2) and Tirumala (1).

The PCB has set up a real-time noise pollution monitoring system near All India Radio Station on Bandar road in the city to assess the noise levels (sound pollution).

http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Vijayawada/pcb-to-set-up-station-for-real-time-data-on-pollution/article4663075.ece

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World Day for Safety and Health at Work 2013 The World Day for Safety and Health at Work in 2013 focuses on the prevention of occupational diseases.

April 29, 2013, 4:19 am

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Worldwide, occupational diseases continue to be the leading cause of work-related deaths. According to ILO estimates, out of 2.34 million occupational fatalities every year, only 321,000 are due to accidents. The remaining 2.02 million deaths are caused by various types of work-related diseases, which correspond to a daily average of more than 5,500 deaths. This is an unacceptable Decent Work deficit.

The inadequate prevention of occupational diseases has profound negative effects not only on workers and their families but also on society at large due to the tremendous costs that it generates; particularly, in terms of loss of productivity and burdening of social security systems. Prevention is more effective and less costly than treatment and rehabilitation. All countries can take concrete steps now to improve their capacity for preventing occupational diseases. As every year, the ILO Programme on Safety and Health at Work and the Environment has prepared a report which calls on governments, employers, workers and their organizations to collaborate in the development and implementation of national policies and strategies aimed at preventing occupational and work-related diseases
Health and safety at work: Facts and figures

2.02 million people die each year from work-related diseases.
321,000 people die each year from occupational accidents.
160 million non-fatal work-related diseases per year.
317 million non –fatal occupational accidents per year.

This means that:

Every 15 seconds, a worker dies from a work-related accident or disease.
Every 15 seconds, 151 workers have a work-related accident.

Deaths and injuries take a particularly heavy toll in developing countries, where a large part of the population is engaged in hazardous activities, such as agriculture, construction, fishing and mining.

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ILO calls for urgent global action to fight occupational diseases

April 29, 2013, 4:20 am

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GENEVA – The International Labour Organization (ILO) has called for an “urgent and vigorous” global campaign to tackle the growing number of work-related diseases, which claim an estimated 2 million lives per year.

“The ultimate cost of occupational disease is human life. It impoverishes workers and their families and may undermine whole communities when they lose their most productive workers,” said the ILO Director-General Guy Ryder in a statementissued for the World Day for Safety and Health at Work. “Meanwhile, the productivity of enterprises is reduced and the financial burden on the State increases as the cost of health care rises. Where social protection is weak or absent, many workers as well as their families, lack the care and support they need.”

ILO Director-General's statement on World Day for Safety and Health at Work

Ryder said prevention is the key to tackling the burden of occupational diseases, and is more effective and less costly than treatment and rehabilitation. He said the ILO was calling for a “paradigm of prevention with comprehensive and coherent action targeting occupational diseases, not only injuries.” He added: "A fundamental step is to recognize the framework provided by the ILO’s international labour standards for effective preventative action and promoting their ratification and implementation."

The head of the International Organization of Employers (IOE), Brent Wilton, said: “The ILO is well placed to lead a concerted and holistic effort to address OSH challenges by providing integrated web-based information that is practical and easily accessible to workplace actors, prevention and treatment centres, employers’ and workers’ organizations, enforcing authorities and labour inspectorates. We have an opportunity to ensure that countries are better equipped to avert the risk of facing the same OSH challenges by learning from shared experiences.”

Sharan Burrow, General Secretary of the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), said: “Our societies must not accept that workers can lose their health to make a living. And we must not forget that occupational diseases put a huge burden on families and the public purse – a burden that is preventable. Harnessing the knowledge of workers, backed by their unions, is crucial for preventing death and illness. Protection, including through respect for workers’ rights to trade union representation, and government legislation and enforcement following ILO standards and guidance should be expanded.”

The report, entitled The Prevention of Occupational Diseases, issued for the World Day for Safety and Health at Work, the ILO said that despite the fact that occupational diseases kill six times as many people, accidents attract greater attention. Of the estimated 2.34 million annual work-related deaths, the vast majority – approximately 2.02 million – are due to work-related diseases. This represents a daily average of 5,500 deaths. The ILO also estimates that 160 million cases of non-fatal work-related diseases occur annually.

Let us set clear OSH goals, establish a road map and most critically, act."
Guy Ryder

Technological and social changes, along with global economic conditions, are aggravating existing health hazards and creating new risks. Well-known occupational diseases, such as pneumoconioses and asbestos-related diseases, remain widespread, while relatively new occupational diseases, such as mental and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), are on the rise.

Occupational diseases carry an enormous cost – for workers and their families, as well as for economic and social development. The ILO estimates that occupational accidents and diseases result in an annual 4 per cent loss in global gross domestic product (GDP), or about US$2.8 trillion, in direct and indirect costs of injuries and diseases.

Good quality data is of key importance, providing the basis for an effective prevention strategy. Yet, globally, more than half of all countries do not provide statistics for occupational diseases. Only a few countries collect sex-disaggregated data. This makes it difficult not only to identify specific types of occupational injuries and diseases that affect men and women, but also hinders the development of effective preventive measures for all.

”Significantly reducing the incidence of occupational disease is not simple, it may not be easy and it will not happen overnight, but progress is certainly feasible. So let us, in our respective areas of responsibility, set clear OSH goals, establish a road map and most critically, act and persevere so that, together, we succeed in turning the tide on the epidemic and make good progress on this dimension of decent work,” Ryder said.

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What Is an Occupational Injury?

April 29, 2013, 5:40 am

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An occupational injury is quite simply any injury that occurs as a result of working. This term usually does not include occupational diseases, which are chronic and often much harder to diagnose. Typically, an occupational injury occurs in a single moment, whereas a disease occurs over a longer period time. Injuries can occur to many different body parts and may vary in severity, but in many areas where workers rights are respected all cases in which an employee is injured must be solved by the employer in some way. Usually, compensation for an occupational injury consists of paying for all treatment related to the injury as well as paying for time off, although some areas offer less.
Often, body parts that suffer occupational injuries are directly related to the activities performed on the job. In some cases, freak accidents may occur that cause other types of bodily harm to employees, but much more frequently injuries are a result of carelessness or the risks of a job. Safety standards designed to prevent workers from suffering bodily harm are not always obeyed, but even when safety guidelines are followed perfectly, people still sometimes get hurt. Given that many companies are obligated to pay for injuries that happen to employees on the job, companies typically invest significantly in worker safety.
some of the most common occupational injuries involve the hands, skin, and spine. People often carelessly cut themselves performing what appear to be simple tasks, or they may hurt their hands in other ways. Skin can be burnt, cut, and otherwise injured anywhere on the body in any number of professions. When a worker experiences an occupational injury having to do with the spine, the problem is typically the result of lifting too much weight or lifting improperly, although falls can also affect the spine. Broken bones and other relatively minor injuries are also common in some professions.
Certain hazardous professions are known to be more susceptible to a high rate of occupational injury than others. A person who does deep sea welding or fire fighting, for example, is at a much higher risk of experiencing a severe occupational injury when compared to a person who works at a desk or in a grocery store. People in lower-risk professions, however, often follow safety standards much more laxly and may become injured in minor ways more frequently.
In many countries, there are national regulatory agencies that work to make certain that all workers are safe. This may entail checking safety procedures, evaluating compliance with safety training, and looking at why past injuries have occurred. Insurance for compensating workers can be costly, particularly when a workplace has many accidents, so businesses often reward workers with incentives for going without injury.

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What Is Occupational Health?

April 29, 2013, 5:43 am

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What Is Occupational Health?

Occupational health is a branch of medicine which is concerned with the intersection of work and health. Many workplaces contain risks for employees, ranging from offices where people can develop repetitive strain injuries to high rise construction projects where people are at risk of serious falls. In fact, occupational health is such a major concern for many governments that entire government agencies are developed to the safety and health of workers, such as the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) in the United States.

Specialists in occupational health may work with individual patients who have work-related injuries, helping the patients recover and developing plans to help the patients avoid injury in the future. This work can include routine screening of people in risky professions, patient education to prevent common workplace injuries, and physical examinations to determine the level of someone's disability after a workplace injury.

The practice of occupational health is also concerned with the health and safety of workplaces as a whole. A growing recognition of the need to protect workers led to a number of reforms in the 20th century, including laws targeted at hazardous workplaces such as laws requiring people exposed to radiation to wear tags to monitor exposure levels, laws concerning the types of conditions under which construction workers can work, and laws specifying working conditions in a variety of settings from abbatoirs to spas.

One of the cornerstones of occupational health is the prevention of injury and disease as a result of occupational exposure. This can include recommendations for ergonomic workplaces to protect office workers, along with laws which address specific risks in the workplace like electrocution, falls, drowning, car accidents, crush injuries, shipwrecks, and so forth. Many careers are surprisingly hazardous, and occupational health and safety legislation has greatly improved conditions for workers.

In addition to working with patients and in workplaces, making recommendations for safety and efficiency, specialists in this field can also be employed as legislative advisors. They may make recommendations and suggestions for policies which are designed to promote the health of workers, and they can also work on the enforcement end of things, inspecting workplaces, equipment, and tools to confirm that they conform with government standards. In all cases, the goal is to balance the need of industries to get work done in an efficient manner with the right of workers to enjoy a reasonably safe working environment, and to have protections if they report workplace hazards or are injured in unsafe workplaces.

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What Are the Most Common Occupational Health Hazards?

April 29, 2013, 5:44 am

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Occupational health hazards refer to the potential risks to the health and safety for those who work outside the home. According to the World Health Organization, this represents about 70% of adult men and up to 60% of adult women throughout the world, and an estimated additional 40 million adults enter the global workforce each year. Of course, the specific occupational hazards faced by this large and growing number of people depends on the region and its economic standing, but there are some of the common hazards faced by workers worldwide.
Topping the list internationally are structural failures and mechanical accidents. This includes structures vulnerable to adverse weather conditions, moving and/or unprotected parts of machinery, or general equipment failure. These occupational health hazards exist fairly equally in developed and undeveloped countries, regardless of industry.
One of the most common work-related injuries to occur globally is the development of musculoskeletal disorders caused by heavy lifting and performing tasks that require repetitive motions. These occupational health hazards are also responsible for the most incidents of disability claims, whether temporary, long-term, or permanent. Muscle injuries due to physical stress most often occur in occupations such as construction and farming, while repetitive motion injuries are most often sustained in environments related to services that typically involve heavy typing and data entry. Also grouped into this category are ergonomically poor working conditions and equipment.

Hearing loss is another hazard encountered by those who work in industries such as construction and manufacturing. In fact, hearing loss ranks with mechanical hazards in terms of being one of the most common occupational health hazards in both developed and developing countries. Typically, this problem occurs over time from chronic exposure to noisy machinery without the use of earmuffs designed to protecting hearing. Even long-term exposure to vibrations can contribute to hearing loss.
Exposure to chemicals and other biological agents account for one of the most common and most harmful occupational hazards that effect several industries. The health risks from these hazards include liver damage, cancer, and reproductive disorders from chronic exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, and corrosive substances. Health care workers are at particular risk for contracting diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and hepatitis B and C. Others, such as those who work in agriculture, are at increased risk of infections caused by fungi and parasites. Other groups are affected by a high incidence of skin and respiratory disorders due to exposure to allergens such as mold, bacteria, and organic dusts.

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The first May Day celebration in India was organised in Madras by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan on 1 May 1923

April 29, 2013, 7:44 pm

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International Workers' Day
Swedish Social Democratic Party at May Day demonstration in Stockholm, Sweden in 2006. The party has dominated Swedish politics for nearly a century. The Trade union palace in Stockholm is seen at the end of the picture
Official name	International Workers' Day
Also called	May Day
Observed by	working people and their labour unions
Date	May 1
Celebrations	organized street demonstrations and street marches
Related to	May Day, Labor Day, various other Labour Days

International Workers' Day (also known as May Day) is a celebration of the international labour movement. May 1 is a national holiday in more than 80 countries and celebrated unofficially in many other countries.
The first May Day celebration in India was organised in Madras by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan on 1 May 1923. This was also the first time the red flag was used in India. The party leader Singaravelu Chettiar made arrangements to celebrate May Day in two places in 1923. One meeting was held at the beach opposite to the Madras High Court; the other meeting was held at the Triplicane beach. The Hindu newspaper, published from Madras reported,

Triumph of Labour at the Marina Beach

The Labour Kisan party has introduced May Day celebrations in Chennai. Comrade Singaravelar presided over the meeting. A resolution was passed stating that the government should declare May Day as a holiday. The president of the party explained the non-violent principles of the party. There was a request for financial aid. It was emphasized that workers of the world must unite to achieve independence.

May Day is a nationwide bank and public holiday in India. The holiday is tied to labour movements for communist and socialist political parties. In Maharashtra and Gujarat, it is officially called Maharashtra Day and Gujarat Day respectively, since on this day in 1960 each attained statehood, after the old Bombay State became divided on linguistic lines.

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Labour in India

April 29, 2013, 8:09 pm

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Labour in India

Labor availability map for the world. In 2011, India had about 487 million workers compared to China's 795 million and United States' 154 million.

The labour in Indiaconsists of about 487 million workers, the second largest after China.^[1] Of these over 94 percent work in unincorporated, unorganized enterprises ranging from pushcart vendors to home-based diamond and gem polishing operations. The organized sector include those employed by the government, state-owned enterprises and private sector enterprises. In 2008, the organized sector employed 27.5 million workers, of which 17.3 million worked for government or government owned entities.

India has numerous labor laws such as those prohibiting discrimination and child labor, those that aim to guarantee fair and humane conditions of work, those that provide social security, minimum wage, right to organize, form trade unions and enforce collective bargaining. India also has numerous rigid regulations such as maximum number of employees per company in certain sectors of economy, and limitations on employers on retrenchment and layoffs, requirement of paperwork, bureaucratic process and government approval for change in labor in companies even if these are because of economic conditions.

India is considered to be a highly regulated and most rigid labor law countries in the world. Rigid labor laws in India have been criticized as the cause of low employment growth, large unorganized sector, underground economy, use of casual labor and low per capita income. These have led many to demand reforms for labor flexibilityin India.

History

The labor laws of India originated and express the socio-political views of leaders such as Nehrufrom pre-1947 independence movement struggle. These laws were expanded in part after debates in Constituent Assemblies and in part from international conventions and recommendations such as of International Labour Organization. The current mosaic of Indian laws on employment are thus a combination of India's history during its colonial heritage, India's experiments with socialism, important human rights and the conventions and standards that have emerged from the United Nations. The laws cover the right to work of one’s choice, right against discrimination, prohibition of child labor, fair and humane conditions of work, social security, protection of wages, redress of grievances, right to organize and form trade unions, collective bargaining and participation in management.^[

Labor laws in India

http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.22wmf2/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png

Labor law notices in India.

India has over 50 major Acts and numerous laws that regulate employers in matters relating to industrial relations, employee unions as well as who, how and when enterprises can employ or terminate employment. Many of these laws survive from British colonial times, while some have been enacted after India's independence from Britain.

India is a federal form of government. Labour is a subject in the concurrent list of the Indian Constitution and therefore labour matters are in the jurisdiction of both central and state governments. Both central and state governments have enacted laws on labour relations and employment issues. Some of the major laws relevant to India are:^[

Workmen’s Compensation Act of 1923

The Workmen’s Compensation Act compensates a workman for any injury suffered during the course of his employment or to his dependents in the case of his death. The Act provides for the rate at which compensation shall be paid to an employee. This is one of many social security laws in India.^[

Trade Unions Act of 1926

This Act enacted the rules and protections granted to Trade Unions in India. This law was amended in 2001.

Payment of Wages Act of 1936

The Payment of Wages Act regulates by when wages shall be distributed to employees by the employers. The law also provides the tax withholdings the employer must deduct and pay to the central or state government before distributing the wages.

Industrial Employment (Standing orders) Act of 1946

This Act requires employers in industrial establishments to define and post the conditions of employment by issuing so-called standing orders. These standing orders must be approved by the government and duly certified. These orders aim to remove flexibility from the employer in terms of job, hours, timing, leave grant, productivity measures and other matters. The standing orders mandate that the employer classify its employees, state the shifts, payment of wages, rules for vacation, rules for sick leave, holidays, rules for termination amongst others.

Industrial Disputes Act of 1947

The Industrial Disputes act 1947 regulates how employers may address industrial disputes such as lockouts, layoffs, retrenchment etc. It controls the lawful processes for reconciliation, adjudication of labour disputes.

The Act also regulates what rules and conditions employers must comply before the termination or layoff of a workman who has been in continuous service for more than one year with the employer. The employer is required to give notice of termination to the employee with a copy of the notice to appropriate government office seeking government's permission, explain valid reasons for termination, and wait for one month before the employment can be lawfully terminated. The employer may pay full compensation for one month in lieu of the notice. Furthermore, employer must pay an equivalent to 15 days average pay for each completed year of employees continuous service. Thus, an employee who has worked for 4 years in addition to various notices and due process, must be paid a minimum of the employee's wage equivalent to 60 days before retrenchment, if the government grants the employer a permission to layoff.

Minimum Wages Act of 1948^[

The Minimum Wages Act prescribes minimum wages in all enterprises, and in some cases those working at home per the schedule of the Act. Central and State Governments can and do revise minimum wages at their discretion. The minimum wage is further classified by nature of work, location and numerous other factors at the discretion of the government. The minimum wage ranges between INR

143 to 1120 per day for work in the so-called central sphere. State governments have their own minimum wage schedules.

Industries (Regulation and Development) Act of 1951

This law declared numerous key manufacturing industries under its so-called First Schedule. It placed many industries under common central government regulations in addition to whatever laws state government enact. It also reserved over 600 products that can only be manufactured in small scale enterprises, thereby regulating who can enter in these businesses, and above all placing a limit on the number of employees per company for the listed products. The list included all key technology and industrial products in early 1950s, including products ranging from certain iron and steel products, fuel derivatives, motors, certain machinery, machine tools, to ceramics and scientific equipment.

Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act of 1952

This Act seeks to ensure the financial security of the employees in an establishment by providing for a system of compulsory savings. The Act provides for establishments of a contributory Provident Fund in which employees’ contribution shall be at least equal to the contribution payable by the employer. Minimum contribution by the employees shall be 10-12% of the wages. This amount is payable to the employee after retirement and could also be withdrawn partly for certain specified purposes.

Maternity Benefit Act of 1961

The Maternity Benefit Act regulates the employment of the women and maternity benefits mandated by law. Any woman employee who worked in any establishment for a period of at least 80 days during the 12 months immediately preceding the date of her expected delivery, is entitled to receive maternity benefits under the Act. The employer is required to pay maternity benefits, medical allowance, maternity leave and nursing breaks.

Payment of Bonus Act of 1965

This Act, applies to an enterprise employing 20 or more persons. The Act requires employer to pay a bonus to persons on the basis of profits or on the basis of production or productivity. The Act was modified to require companies to pay a minimum bonus, even if the employer suffers losses during the accounting year. This minimum is currently 8.33 percent of the salary.

Payment of Gratuity Act of 1972

This law applies to all establishments employing 10 or more workers. Gratuity is payable to the employee if he or she resigns or retires. The Indian government mandates that this payment be at the rate of 15 days salary of the employee for each completed year of service subject to a maximum of INR

1000000.

Labor structure in India

A majority of labor in India is employed by unorganized sector (unincorporated). These include family owned shops and street vendors. Above is a self-employed child laborer in unorganized retail sector of India.

Labor at an unorganized handicraft manufacturing enterprise.

Over 94 percent of India's working population is part of the unorganized sector. In local terms, organized sector or formal sector in India refers to licensed organizations, that is, those who are registered and pay sales tax, income tax, etc. These include the publicly traded companies, incorporated or formally registered entities, corporations, factories, shopping malls, hotels, and large businesses. Unorganised sector, also known as informal sector or own account enterprises, refers to all unlicensed, self-employed or unregistered economic activity such as owner manned general stores, handicrafts and handloom workers, rural traders, farmers, etc

India's Ministry of Labor, in its 2008 report, classified the unorganized labor in India into four groups. This classification categorized India's unorganized labour force by occupation, nature of employment, specially distressed categories and service categories. The unorganized occupational groups include small and marginal farmers, landless agricultural labourers, share croppers, fishermen, those engaged in animal husbandry, beedi rolling, labeling and packing, building and construction workers, leather workers, weavers, artisans, salt workers, workers in brick kilns and stone quarries, workers in saw mills, and workers in oil mills. A separate category based on nature of employment includes attached agricultural labourers, bonded labourers, migrant workers, contract and casual laborers. Another separate category dedicated to distressed unorganized sector includes toddy tappers, scavengers, carriers of head loads, drivers of animal driven vehicles, loaders and unloaders. The last unorganized labor category includes service workers such as midwives, domestic workers, barbers, vegetable and fruit vendors, newspaper vendors, pavement vendors, hand cart operators, and the unorganized retail.

The unorganized sector has low productivity and offers lower wages. Even though it accounted for over 94 percent of workers, India's unorganized sector created just 57 percent of India's national domestic product in 2006, or about 9 fold less per worker than the organized sector. According to Bhalla, the productivity gap sharply worsens when rural unorganized sector is compared to urban unorganized sector, with gross value added productivity gap spiking an additional 2 to 4 fold depending on occupation. Some of lowest income jobs are in the rural unorganized sectors. Poverty rates are reported to be significantly higher in families where all working age members have only worked the unorganized sector throughout their lives.

Agriculture, dairy, horticulture and related occupations alone employ 52 percent of labor in India.

About 30 million workers are migrant workers, most in agriculture, and local stable employment is unavailable for them.

India's National Sample Survey Office in its 67th report found that unorganized manufacturing, unorganized trading/retail and unorganized services employed about 10 percent each of all workers nationwide, as of 2010. It also reported that India had about 58 million unincorporated non-Agriculture enterprises in 2010.

In the organized privately owned sector with more than 10 employees per company, the biggest employers in 2008 were manufacturing at 5 million; social services at 2.2 million, which includes private schools and hospitals; finance at 1.1 million which includes bank, insurance and real estate; and agriculture at 1 million. India had more central and state government employees in 2008, than employees in all private sector companies combined. If state-owned companies and municipal government employees were included, India had a 1.8:1 ratio between public sector employees and private sector employees. In terms of gender equality in employment, male to female ratio was 5:1 in government and government owned enterprises; private sector fared better at 3:1 ratio. Combined, counting only companies with more than 10 employees per company, the organized public and private sector employed 5.5 million women and 22 million men.

Given its natural rate of population growth and aging characteristics, India is adding about 13 million new workers every year to its labor pool. India's economy has been adding about 8 million new jobs every year predominantly in low paying, unorganized sector. The remaining 5 million youth joining the ranks of poorly paid partial employment, casual labor pool for temporary infrastructure and real estate construction jobs, or in many cases, being unemployed.

Criticisms

Scholars suggest India's rigid labor laws and excessive regulations assumed to protect the labor are the cause of slow employment growth in high paying, organized sector. India's labor-related acts and regulations have led to labour market rigidity. This encourages shadow economy for entrepreneurs, an economy that prefers to employ informal labor to avoid the complicated and opaque laws. In particular, Indian labour legislation such as the Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 added rigid labour laws and one sided trade union laws. Although the Act does not prohibit layoffs and retrenchments, it does requireentrepreneurs and companies to get the permission from government officials to fire an employee for absenteeism, retrenchemployees for economic reasons, or to close an economically nonviable company. This bureaucratic process can stretch into years, and the government officials have consistently and almost always denied such permission. As a result, the scholars argue that India's inflexible labor laws have created a strong disincentive to formally register new companies and hire additional workers in existing organized sector companies. Unlike China, Indian businesses have avoided substituting India's abundant labor for export or domestic opportunities, or use labor instead of expensive equipment for quality control or other operations. These are reasons for India's weak employment growth.

More recently, a few scholars have completed a comparative study between states of India with different labor regulations. They compared states of India who have amended labour legislations to grant more flexibility to employers, to those states in India that have made their labor laws even more rigid and complicated to comply with. These studies find that states with flexible labor laws have grown significantly faster. Flexible labor states have been able to take advantage of the export opportunities, and the per capita household income has risen much faster in states with flexible labor laws. States with rigid labor laws have led local entrepreneurs to prefer casual workers or contract workers with finite employment time period; in essence, more rigid and inflexible labor law states see increased informal employment.

A 2007 article in The Economist finds India to have the most restrictive labor laws in any major economy of the world. India's private sector, including its organized manufacturing sector, employs about 10 million Indians. Manufacturing firms need to obtain government permission to lay off workers from factories, and this permission is usually denied if they have more than 100 staff. This partly explains why most Indian firms are small: 87 percent of employment in India's organized manufacturing sector is in firms with fewer than ten employees, compared with only 5 percent in China. Small Indian firms cannot reap economies of scale or exploit the latest technology, and so suffer from lower productivity than if they scaled up, employed more people and were much bigger companies. This cripples Indian firms ability to rapidly expand or adjust with changes in global economy, both during early opportunity phase and during economic change.

One exception is white collar jobs, where companies have stronger lobbies and employees are not unionized, so they have managed to operate freely with a much larger workforce and have been able to lay off significant chunk of their workforce without cognizance of the labor laws. In almost all cases white collar employees are forced to resign under threat of negative recommendations and black-listing with industry associations.

Djankov and Ramalho have reviewed a number of labor studies on developing countries including India. They find, consistent with above criticisms, that countries with rigid employment laws have larger informal/unorganized sectors and higher unemployment, especially among young workers. They also report the rigid, inflexible labor laws are strongly related to low per capita income.

International comparison of Indian labor laws

The table below contrasts the labor laws in India to those in China and United States, as of 2011.

Relative regulations and rigidity in labor laws
Practice required by law	India	China	United States
Minimum wage (US$/month)	90 (INR 5000)	182.5	1242.6
Standard work day	8 hours	8 hours	8 hours
Minimum rest while at work	30 minutes per 5 hour	None	None
Maximum overtime limit	200 hours per year	1 hour per day	None
Premium pay for overtime	100%	50%	50%
Dismissal due to redundancy allowed?	Yes, if approved by government	Yes, without approval of government	Yes, without approval of government
Government approval required for 1 person dismissal	Yes	No	No
Government approval required for 9 person dismissal	Yes	No	No
Government approval for redundancy dismissal granted	Rarely	Not applicable	Not applicable
Dismissal priority rules regulated	Yes	Yes	No
Severance pay for redundancy dismissal of employee with 1 year tenure	2.1 week salary	4.3 week salary	None
Severance pay for redundancy dismissal of employee with 5 year tenure	10.7 week salary	21.7 week salary	None

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