How is Copper Sulphate Made?

May 7, 2015, 9:29 am

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How is Copper Sulphate Made?

If you prefer to have copper sulphate crystals, grow them straight from the blue solution simply by letting it evaporate

You may not have access to a chemistry lab, but you can still make copper sulphate crystals at home.
The two main ingredients are copper and sulphuric acid, but simply adding copper to a diluted acidic solution will not promote the oxidation reaction. This is because the standard reduction potential of copper (+0.52) is higher that hydrogen (0.00), which means copper has a lower tendency to lose electrons than hydrogen. In practical terms, this means copper cannot reduce hydrogen (from H2SO4), and therefore the reaction does not occur. To “help” the reaction, either a concentrated solution of H2SO4 (added to copper oxide) or electricity are required.

Make copper sulphate at home

Here we’ll explain a method using copper wire and battery fluid (sulphuric acid). The method needs electricity to promote the reaction between the reagents. Materials needed include copper wire (as a source of copper) and battery fluid (diluted sulphuric acid, H2SO4); as well as a 6-volt battery.
In a container with diluted sulphuric acid (add some water if necessary) place two copper wires connected to a 6-volt battery. It’s important to make sure the copper wires do not touch each other. The solution very quickly turns blue, as the reaction occurs to produce copper sulphate.
Cu + 2 H2SO4 = CuSO4 + SO2 + 2 H2O
When electricity runs through the copper wires, bubbles of gas will start from the negative electrode, while copper will start dissolving from the positive electrode, oxidised by the electrical current. As Cu2+ reacts with SO42-, copper sulphate (CuSO4) is produced. To recover this compound as powder, the best way is to boil the solution. At this stage, it’s essential to be very careful, because as the water evaporates, the acidic solution becomes increasingly concentrated. It’s advisable to conduct this experiment in a well-ventilated area wearing appropriate protective equipment, such as gloves and mask.
As you boil the water, copper sulphate will begin to precipitate at the bottom of the container. At this stage, it’s possible to recover the sulphuric acid solution to be used again. However, if you prefer to have copper sulphate crystals, grow them straight from the blue solution simply by letting it evaporate.

Industrial processes

In industrial settings, copper sulphate is extracted from copper ores or from nonferrous scrap. After extraction, copper is dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid in the presence of air, producing a saturated liquor. To obtain copper sulphate crystals, this solution is allowed to cool down slowly in large containers with lead strips to provide a surface for crystals to grow on. If only the powder is required, the cooling process can be accelerated.

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What is a chemical reaction?

May 7, 2015, 9:48 am

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What is a chemical reaction?

Achemical reaction is the change of a substance into a new one that has a different chemical identity.

How can I tell if a chemical reaction is occurring?

A chemical reaction is usually accompanied by easily observed physical effects, such as the emission of heat and light, the formation of a precipitate, the evolution of gas, or a color change.  Absolute confirmation of a chemical change can only be validated by chemical analysis of the products!

Take a look at the following image and describe what you see going on?  What are the key indicators of a chemical change?  The key is observation! 

        

      

Click on Sherlock Holmes as a warm to test your powers of observation!

         

Oh …..don’t forget to check out the barking dog!

         

 

 

          There are many different types of chemical reactions.  Chemists have classified the many different reactions into general categories.  The chemical reactions we will explore are a representation of the types of reactions found in each group.  There is a general description of the main reaction types and specific examples provided in the  selection boxes.

Synthesis Reaction (Combination Reaction)

In a synthesis reaction, two or more substances combine to form a new compound.  This type of

reaction is represented by the following equation.

A       +       B                          AB

          A and B represent the reacting elements or compounds while AB represents a compound as the product.

The following examples are representative of synthesis reactions. 

Aluminum and Bromine

Formation of Aluminum Bromide:  When Al is placed on the surface of liquid Br2 an exothermic reaction occurs. The Al is oxidized to Al3+ by the Br2, which is reduced to Br - ions. The ionic product, AlBr3, can be observed on the watch glass after the reaction.

Sodium and Chlorine

Formation of Sodium Chloride:  Molten sodium burns when it is put into a container of chlorine gas. In the reaction a sodium ion loses an electron to form a sodium cation and a chlorine atom simultaneously gains an electron to form a chloride anion. The product of the reaction is the ionic compound sodium chloride, which is the white solid observed.

Zinc and Oxygen

Formation of Zinc Oxide:  Oxidation is a loss of electrons and reduction is a gain of electrons. The oxidation of metallic Zn by O2 to form ZnO(s) is illustrated at the molecular level. The transfer of electrons from Zn to O2 is shown. Atoms can be observed to change as they are oxidized or reduced, respectively to their ionic forms.

Sodium and Potassium in Water

Formation of Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide:  When a small piece of Na is added to a solution containing an indicator, evidence of the reaction can be observed by the change in the color of the solution as NaOH is formed, by the melting of the Na and by the movement of the Na caused by formation of hydrogen gas. K is more reactive than Na as demonstrated by its reaction with water. This reaction produces enough heat to ignite the H2 produced.

 

Single-Replacement Reaction

         

          In a single-replacement reaction (displacement reaction) one element replaces a similar element

in the compound.  Single-replacement reactions can be represented by the following equations.

AB    +       C                          AC    +       B

Iron (III) Oxide and Aluminum Reaction 2

Thermite Reaction:  In the thermite reaction, Al reduces Fe2O3 to Fe in an extremely exothermic reaction in which Al is oxidized to Al2O3. The reaction produces enough heat to melt the iron. Because of the extreme heat produced in the thermite reaction, it is used industrially to weld iron.

Copper (II) Oxide and Carbon

Reduction of CuO:  When black carbon and black copper oxide are heated together the Cu2+ ions are reduced to metallic Cu and a gas is evolved. When the gas is collected in Ca(OH)2 a white precipitate of CaCO3 is formed. The reaction which occurs involves the reduction of Cu2+ ions by carbon which is oxidized to CO2.

Silver Nitrate and Copper

Formation of Silver Crystals:  When a copper wire is placed in a solution of AgNO3, the Cu reduces Ag+ to metallic Ag. At the same time, Cu is oxidized to Cu2+. As the reaction progresses Ag crystals can be seen to form on the Cu wire and the solution becomes blue as a result of the formation of Cu2+ ions.

Tin (II) Chloride and Zinc

Formation of Tin Crystals:  Oxidation-reduction chemistry of Sn and Zn. When acidified Sn(II)Cl2 is added to a beaker containing a piece of Zn, some of the Sn2+ reacts with H+ in the solution to produce H2 gas. Immediate changes can also be observed on the surface of the Zn as it quickly becomes coated with Sn crystals. After the reaction has progressed for a time needles of Sn can be observed on the surface of the Zn.

Double-Replacement Reaction

          In a double-replacement reaction, the ions of two compounds exchange places in an aqueous solution

to form two new compounds.  A double-replacement reaction can be represented by the following equation.

AB    +      CD                   AC   +      BD

Calcium carbonate and Sulfurous Acid

This marble statue has been eroded by acid rain. Marble is a material having CaCO3 as its primary component. Acids react with and dissolve the marble.  The acid comes from sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere combining with water to form sulfurous acid.

Lead (II) Nitrate and Potassium Iodide

An aqueous solution of Potassium Iodide is added to an aqueous solution of Lead (II) Nitrate forming lead (II) iodide.  The formation of a precipitate occurs when the cations of one reactant combines with the anions of the other reactant to form an insoluble or slightly insoluble compound.

Sodium chloride and Silver nitrate

An aqueous solution of Sodium Chloride is added to an aqueous solution of Silver Nitrate forming silver chloride.

Decomposition Reaction

In a decomposition reaction, single compound undergoes a reaction that produces two or more simpler

substances.  A decomposition reaction can be represented by the following equation.

AB                            A      +      B

Water into Hydrogen and Oxygen

Electrolysis of Water:  When a direct current is passed through water it decomposes to form oxygen and hydrogen. The volume of hydrogen gas produced at the negative electrode is twice the volume of the oxygen gas formed at the positive electrode. This indicates that water contains twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms, which is an illustration of the law of constant composition.

Nitrogen Triiodide

Decomposition of Nitrogen Triiodide:Nitrogen triiodide is extremely unstable when it is dry. Touching it with a feather causes it to decompose explosively. The explosion occurs as chemical energy is released by the decomposition of nitrogen triiodide to N2 and I2. Violet iodine vapor can be observed after the explosion.

Combustion Reaction           

          In a combustion reaction, a substance combines with oxygen, releasing a large amount of energy in the form

of light and heat.  For organic compounds, such as hydrocarbons, the products of the combustion reaction are carbon dioxide and water.

                   CH₄  +      2 O₂                                      CO₂  +      2 H₂O

Hydrogen and Oxygen Reaction II

The combustion of hydrogen yields water vapor as a reaction product.  Three balloons of hydrogen and one balloon mixed with hydrogen and oxygen form an explosive mixture

Various Substances with Oxygen

Reactions with Oxygen. Magnesium, steel wool, white phosphorous, and sulfur are burned in oxygen. The resulting reactions are combination reactions in which two substances react to form one product. The products formed in these reactions are MgO, Fe2O3, P4O10 and SO2. All of these combustion reactions are very exothermic.

Phosphorous and Oxygen

The combustion of yellow phosphorus occurs in an oxygen atmosphere.  The main product of this reaction is phosphorus pentoxide.

 

Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada Dated :May 07, 2015

May 7, 2015, 5:39 pm

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Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada    Dated :May 07, 2015

	Past 24 Hours Weather Data Maximum Temp(oC) 37.7 Departure from Normal(oC) 1 Minimum Temp (oC) - Departure from Normal(oC) -1 24 Hours Rainfall (mm) NIL Todays Sunset (IST) 18:22 Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:33 Moonset (IST) 08:03 Moonrise (IST) 21:18
Today's Forecast:Sky condition would be partly cloudy. Rain or Thundershowers could occur in parts of city. Maximum & Minimum temperatures would be around 38 and 26 degrees Celsius respectively.
Date Temperature ( o C ) Weather Forecast Minimum Maximum 08-May 26.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 09-May 26.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 10-May 27.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky 11-May 26.0 36.0 Partly cloudy sky 12-May 26.0 36.0 Partly cloudy sky 13-May 26.0 36.0 Partly cloudy sky

	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	31 °C	-
Max Temperature	37 °C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	25 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	24
Growing Degree Days	38 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	24 °C
Average Humidity	61
Maximum Humidity	79
Minimum Humidity	38
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1007.86 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	2 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	7 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	7.4 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	31 °C	-
Max Temperature	37 °C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	25 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	24
Growing Degree Days	38 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	24 °C
Average Humidity	61
Maximum Humidity	79
Minimum Humidity	38
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1007.86 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	2 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	7 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	7.4 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

Chemical equation and its balance

May 8, 2015, 5:45 am

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Recently Entered Equations:
	Balanced Equation
K2Cr2O + FeCl2 + HCI = CrCl3 + FeCl3 + KCI + H2O	K2Cr2O - 6FeCl2 + 2HCI = 2CrCl3 - 6FeCl3 + 2KCI + H2O
KNO3 + K2SO3 + H2O = N2O + K2SO4 + KOH	2KNO3 + 4K2SO3 + H2O = N2O + 4K2SO4 + 2KOH
KBrO + Sn + Ba(OH)2 = KBr + Ba(HSnO2)2	2KBrO + 2Sn + Ba(OH)2 = 2KBr + Ba(HSnO2)2
K+H2O=H2+KOH	2K + 2H2O = H2 + 2KOH
KMnO4 +H2SO4 +KBr=MnSO4 +Br2 +H2O +K2SO4	2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 10KBr = 2MnSO4 + 5Br2 + 8H2O + 6K2SO4
KOH+H3PO4=K3PO4+H2O	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
K2Cr2O7+FeCl2+HCl=CrCl3+FeCl3+H2O+KCl	K2Cr2O7 + 6FeCl2 + 14HCl = 2CrCl3 + 6FeCl3 + 7H2O + 2KCl
KNO3+H2CO3=K2CO3+HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KOH+H2SO4=K2SO4+H2O	2KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2H2O
KMnO4+H2SO4+C4H10O=K2SO4+H2MnO3+C4H8O2+H2	2KMnO4 + H2SO4 + 2C4H10O = K2SO4 + 2H2MnO3 + 2C4H8O2 + H2
K + Cl2 = KCl	2K + Cl2 = 2KCl
K+Br2=KBr	2K + Br2 = 2KBr
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KI + H2O = KOH + I + H2	2KI + 2H2O = 2KOH + 2I + H2
K2CrO4 + NaNO2 + H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + NaNO3 + H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3NaNO2 + 5H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 3NaNO3 + 5H2O
KHCO3+H2C2O4=H2O+CO2+K	2KHCO3 + H2C2O4 = 2H2O + 4CO2 + 2K
KMnO4+HCl=KCl+MnCl2+H2O+Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KCIO3 = KCI + O2	2KCIO3 = 2KCI + 3O2
KClO3 = KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KBr + Cl2 = Br + KCl	2KBr + Cl2 = 2Br + 2KCl
KBr + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + HBr	2KBr + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2HBr
KBr + H2O2 + H2SO4 = Br + K2SO4 +H2O	2KBr + H2O2 + H2SO4 = 2Br + K2SO4 + 2H2O
K2Cr2O7+C+H2SO4=Cr2(SO4)3+K2SO4+CO2+H2O	2K2Cr2O7 + 3C + 8H2SO4 = 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 3CO2 + 8H2O
KI + Cl2 = KCl + I2	2KI + Cl2 = 2KCl + I2
KNO3+H2SO4=K2SO4+HNO3	2KNO3 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2HNO3
KOH+H3PO4=H2O+K3PO4	3KOH + H3PO4 = 3H2O + K3PO4
KI(s)+Cl2=2KCl(aq)+I2	2KI(s) + Cl2 = 2KCl(aq) + I2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2Cr2O7 + HCl=Cl2+ Cr2O3+ H2O+ KCl	K2Cr2O7 + 8HCl = 3Cl2 + Cr2O3 + 4H2O + 2KCl
K2Cr2O7 +H2O + S = SO2 +KOH + Cr2O3	2K2Cr2O7 + 2H2O + 3S = 3SO2 + 4KOH + 2Cr2O3
KMnO4 + H2SO4 + K2 Na(Co(NO2)6) = K2 SO4 + Na2SO4 +Co2(SO4)3 + MnSO4 + KNO3 + H2O	24KMnO4 + 36H2SO4 + 10K2Na(Co(NO2)6) = -8K2SO4 + 5Na2SO4 + 5Co2(SO4)3 + 24MnSO4 + 60KNO3 + 36H2O
K + Br2 = KBr	2K + Br2 = 2KBr
KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + H2O	2KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2H2O
K2Cr2O7+SnCl2+HCl=CrCl3+SnCl4+KCl+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 3SnCl2 + 14HCl = 2CrCl3 + 3SnCl4 + 2KCl + 7H2O
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + H2O	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
K2SO4 + Li3N = K3N + Li2SO4	3K2SO4 + 2Li3N = 2K3N + 3Li2SO4
KIO3 +Cl2 + KOH = KIO4 +KCl + H20	20KIO3 + 10Cl2 + 20KOH = 20KIO4 + 20KCl + H20
K2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 = PbCrO4 + KNO3	K2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 = PbCrO4 + 2KNO3
KNO3(s) + K(s) = K2O(s) + N2(g)	2KNO3(s) + 10K(s) = 6K2O(s) + N2(g)
KCl + SO2 + H2O = KClS + H2O2	KCl + SO2 + 2H2O = KClS + 2H2O2
K+O2 = K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
KClO3 + PCl3 = PCl3O + KCl	KClO3 + 3PCl3 = 3PCl3O + KCl
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KI + Pb(C2H3O2)2 = PbI2 + CH3CO2K	2KI + Pb(C2H3O2)2 = PbI2 + 2CH3CO2K
KClO3 + PCl3 = PCl3O + KCl	KClO3 + 3PCl3 = 3PCl3O + KCl
K2O(s) + H2O(l) = KOH(aq)	K2O(s) + H2O(l) = 2KOH(aq)
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KO2(s) + HNO3(aq) =KNO3 (aq) + O2(g) + H2O2(aq)	2KO2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) = 2KNO3(aq) + O2(g) + H2O2(aq)
KOH+HC1=KC1+H2O=	KOH + HC1 = KC1 + H2O
K3PO4+BaCl2=KCl+Ba3(PO4)2	2K3PO4 + 3BaCl2 = 6KCl + Ba3(PO4)2
KCLO3=KCL+O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
K+O2=K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
KMnO4 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + O + H2O	2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5O + 3H2O
KMnSO4 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + O + H2O	2KMnSO4 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 - O + H2O
KMnO4 + H2SO4 = MnO2 + SO2 + H2O +K2SO4	2KMnO4 - 2H2SO4 = 2MnO2 - 3SO2 - 2H2O + K2SO4
KI + H2SO4 + H2O2 = I2 + H2O + K2SO4	2KI + H2SO4 + H2O2 = I2 + 2H2O + K2SO4
K(s)+H2O(l)=KOH(aq)+H2(g)	2K(s) + 2H2O(l) = 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
K + H2O = KOH + H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KMnO4+HCl=KCl+MnCl2+Cl2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
KMnO4+FeSO4+H2SO4=MnSO4+Fe2(SO4)3+K2SO4+H2O	2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
K+O2=K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
KClO3=KClO4+KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KClO3=KClO4+KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
K(s)+H2O(l)=KOH(aq)+H2(g)	2K(s) + 2H2O(l) = 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
KI + H2O2 +H2SO4 = I2 + K2SO4 + H2O	2KI + H2O2 + H2SO4 = I2 + K2SO4 + 2H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2Cr2O7 + HCl = KCl + CrCl3 + Cl2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KIO3 + H2SO3 = KI + H2SO4	KIO3 + 3H2SO3 = KI + 3H2SO4
KNO3 + CaCO3 = KCO3 + CaNO3	KNO3 + CaCO3 = KCO3 + CaNO3
KClO3 = KClO4 + KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KOH+Fe(NO3)3=K(NO3)3+FeOH	KOH + Fe(NO3)3 = K(NO3)3 + FeOH
K2CO3 (aq) + BaCl2(aq) = KCl (aq) +BaCO3 (s)	K2CO3(aq) + BaCl2(aq) = 2KCl(aq) + BaCO3(s)
K2CO3 (aq) + BaCl2(aq) = KCl (aq) + BaCO3 (s)	K2CO3(aq) + BaCl2(aq) = 2KCl(aq) + BaCO3(s)
KMnO4+HCl=KCl+MnCl2+Cl2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
KI + Fe(NH4)(SO4)2 = I2 + FeSO4 + K(NH4)(SO4)	2KI + 2Fe(NH4)(SO4)2 = I2 + 2FeSO4 + 2K(NH4)(SO4)
KMnO4+FeSO4+H2SO4=MnSO4+Fe2(SO4)3+K2SO4+H2O	2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
K2Cr2O7+HCl=KCl+CrCl3+Cl2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
KClO3 = O2 + KCl	2KClO3 = 3O2 + 2KCl
KCO3=KC +O2	2KCO3 = 2KC + 3O2
KCO3=KC +O2	2KCO3 = 2KC + 3O2
K +O2=K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
K2CO3 + H2O = KOH + KHCO3	K2CO3 + H2O = KOH + KHCO3
KClO3=KCl+3O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K+2H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KNO3=2KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 = K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2	2KMnO4 = K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
K + F2 = KF	2K + F2 = 2KF
KMnO4 +HCl = MnCl2 + Cl2 + KCl + H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
K+Cl2=KCl	2K + Cl2 = 2KCl
KC2H3O2=CH3+KCO2	KC2H3O2 = CH3 + KCO2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + C2H6O + H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + C2H4O	K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3C2H6O + 17H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + 3C2H4O
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + C2H6O + H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + C2H4O	K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3C2H6O + 17H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + 3C2H4O
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KClO2= KCl + O2	KClO2 = KCl + O2
K2Cr2O7 + KOH = K2CrO4 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 2KOH = 2K2CrO4 + H2O
K+ZnCl2=3KCl2+Zn	K + ZnCl2 = KCl2 + Zn
KHCO3 = K2CO3+H2O+CO2	2KHCO3 = K2CO3 + H2O + CO2
K2S + I2 = 2 KI + S	K2S + I2 = 2KI + S
K2S + I2 = 2 KI + S	K2S + I2 = 2KI + S
K2(CO3) + Zn3(PO4)2 = Zn(CO3) + K3(PO4)	3K2(CO3) + Zn3(PO4)2 = 3Zn(CO3) + 2K3(PO4)
K2Cr2O7+H2C2O4+HCl=CrCl3+CO2+KCl+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 3H2C2O4 + 8HCl = 2CrCl3 + 6CO2 + 2KCl + 7H2O
KNO3=K+NO3	KNO3 = K + NO3
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KI+ Cl2 = KCl+ I2	2KI + Cl2 = 2KCl + I2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4- + OH- = KMnO4-2 + O2 + H2O	4KMnO4- + 4OH- = 4KMnO4-2 + O2 + 2H2O
KMnO4 + KI + HNO3 = KNO3 + Mn(NO3)2 + I2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 10KI + 16HNO3 = 12KNO3 + 2Mn(NO3)2 + 5I2 + 8H2O
KMnO4 + KI + 14HNO3 = KNO3 + Mn(NO3)2 + I2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 10KI + 16HNO3 = 12KNO3 + 2Mn(NO3)2 + 5I2 + 8H2O
KMnO4 + KI + 14HNO3 = KNO3 + Mn(NO3)2 + I2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 10KI + 16HNO3 = 12KNO3 + 2Mn(NO3)2 + 5I2 + 8H2O
KNO3+H2CO3=K2CO3+HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KOH+H3PO4=K3PO4+H2O	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
K2CrO4 +Na2 SO3 +HCl=KCl+Na 2 SO 4 +CrCl3 +H 2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
KHCO3(s) = K2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)	2KHCO3(s) = K2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
K2CrO4+Na2SO3+HCl=KCl+Na2SO4+CrCl3+H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
K2CrO4+Na2SO3+HCl=KCl+Na2SO4+CrCl3+H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
KNO2+KMnO4+H2SO4=KNO3+K2SO4+MnSO4+H2O	5KNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = 5KNO3 + K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O
KNO2+KMnO4+H2SO4=KNO3+K2SO4+MnSO4+H2O	5KNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = 5KNO3 + K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KBr + Pb(NO3)2 = K(NO3) + PbBr2	2KBr + Pb(NO3)2 = 2K(NO3) + PbBr2
KCl + Pb(NO3)2 = K(NO3) + PbCl2	2KCl + Pb(NO3)2 = 2K(NO3) + PbCl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KOH+H2O=K+H3O	-1KOH + 2H2O = -1K + H3O
KMnO4 + H2SO4+ FeSO4 = MnSO4 + H2O + Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4	2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 + 10FeSO4 = 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4
KMnO4 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 = MnSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H20	0KMnO4 + 20FeSO4 + 10H2SO4 = 0MnSO4 + 10Fe2(SO4)3 + 0K2SO4 + H20
K(s) + H2(g) = KH(s)	2K(s) + H2(g) = 2KH(s)
KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + Na2CO3 = KNO2 +Na2CrO4+Na2SO4+CO2	3KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 5Na2CO3 = 3KNO2 + 2Na2CrO4 + 3Na2SO4 + 5CO2
KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + Na2CO3 = KNO2 +Na2CrO4+Na2SO4+CO2	3KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 5Na2CO3 = 3KNO2 + 2Na2CrO4 + 3Na2SO4 + 5CO2
KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + Na2CO3 = KNO2 +Na2CrO4+Na2SO4+CO2	3KNO3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 5Na2CO3 = 3KNO2 + 2Na2CrO4 + 3Na2SO4 + 5CO2
KNO3 + Cr(SO4)3 + Na2CO3 = KNO2 +Na2CrO4+Na2SO4+CO2	0KNO3 + Cr(SO4)3 + 4Na2CO3 = 0KNO2 + Na2CrO4 + 3Na2SO4 + 4CO2
KOH(aq) + NiCl2(aq) = Ni(OH)2(s) + KCl(aq)	2KOH(aq) + NiCl2(aq) = Ni(OH)2(s) + 2KCl(aq)
K+H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KCLO3=KCL+O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
K+H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KClO3 + S = KCl + SO2	2KClO3 + 3S = 2KCl + 3SO2
KClO3 + S = KCl + SO2	2KClO3 + 3S = 2KCl + 3SO2
K2S+CrCl2=CrS+K2Cl2	K2S + CrCl2 = CrS + K2Cl2
KMnO4=K2MnO4+MnO2+O2	2KMnO4 = K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
K+F2=KF	2K + F2 = 2KF
KMnO4+H2SO4+Sb=K2SO4+MnSO4+Sb2O3+H2O	6KMnO4 + 9H2SO4 + 10Sb = 3K2SO4 + 6MnSO4 + 5Sb2O3 + 9H2O
K2CrO7 + H2SO4+ SO2= Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 +H2O	-2K2CrO7 + 4H2SO4 - 9SO2 = -1Cr2(SO4)3 - 2K2SO4 + 4H2O
K2CrO7 + H2SO4+ SO2= Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 +H2	-2K2CrO7 + 2H2SO4 - 7SO2 = -1Cr2(SO4)3 - 2K2SO4 + 2H2
KClO3 = KCl + KClO4	4KClO3 = KCl + 3KClO4
K + Zn(NO3)2 = Zn + KNO3	2K + Zn(NO3)2 = Zn + 2KNO3
KBr + Cl2 = KCl + Br2	2KBr + Cl2 = 2KCl + Br2
KBr + Cl2 = KCl + Br2	2KBr + Cl2 = 2KCl + Br2
KBr + Cl2 = KCl + Br2	2KBr + Cl2 = 2KCl + Br2
KCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + KNO3	KCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + KNO3
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4+HBr=Br2+MnBr2+KBr+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HBr = 5Br2 + 2MnBr2 + 2KBr + 8H2O
KMnO4+HBr=Br2+MnBr2+KBr+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HBr = 5Br2 + 2MnBr2 + 2KBr + 8H2O
KMnO4+HBr=Br+MnBr2+KBr+H2O	KMnO4 + 8HBr = 5Br + MnBr2 + KBr + 4H2O
KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) = CO2 + H2O + KCl	KHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) = CO2 + H2O + KCl
KOH(aq) + NiCl2(aq) = Ni(OH)2(s) + KCl(aq)	2KOH(aq) + NiCl2(aq) = Ni(OH)2(s) + 2KCl(aq)
K2CrO4+Na2SO3+HCl=KCl+Na2SO4+CrCl3+H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
K2S + CoCl2 = KCl + CoS	K2S + CoCl2 = 2KCl + CoS
KMnO4 +Na2SO3+H2SO4= MnO2+ Na2SO4+K2SO4 +H2O	2KMnO4 + 3Na2SO3 + H2SO4 = 2MnO2 + 3Na2SO4 + K2SO4 + H2O
KBr+ NaOH= KOH + NaBr	KBr + NaOH = KOH + NaBr
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KBr+ NaOH= KOH + NaBr	KBr + NaOH = KOH + NaBr
KBr+AgNO3=AgBr+KNO3	KBr + AgNO3 = AgBr + KNO3
KCl+AgNO3=AgCl+KNO3	KCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + KNO3
K2O(s)+HI(aq)=K2OH(l)+I(l)	K2O(s) + HI(aq) = K2OH(l) + I(l)
KClO + HCl = Cl2 + KCl + H2O	KClO + 2HCl = Cl2 + KCl + H2O
KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + H2O	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KMnO4 + H2CO2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3H2CO2 = 3CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + HCO2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 6HCO2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + COH= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 2COH = 2CO2 + 0H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + H2CO2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3H2CO2 = 3CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KCLO3=KCL+O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
KL+H2SO4=KHSO4+H2O+SO2+L2	2KL + 3H2SO4 = 2KHSO4 + 2H2O + SO2 + L2
K2Cr2O7+KI+H2SO4=K2SO4+Cr2(SO4)3+I2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = 4K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3I2 + 7H2O
KCl+Mg(OH)2=K(OH)2+MgCl	KCl + Mg(OH)2 = K(OH)2 + MgCl
K3PO4 + Cu(NO3)2 = Cu3(PO4)2 + KNO3	2K3PO4 + 3Cu(NO3)2 = Cu3(PO4)2 + 6KNO3
K2Cr2O7 + HI + HClO4 = Cr(ClO4)3 + KClO4 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6HI + 8HClO4 = 2Cr(ClO4)3 + 2KClO4 + 3I2 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7 + HI + HClO4 = Cr(ClO4)3 + KClO4 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6HI + 8HClO4 = 2Cr(ClO4)3 + 2KClO4 + 3I2 + 7H2O
KIO4(aq) + KI(aq) + HCl(aq) = KCl(aq) + I2(s) + H2O(l)	KIO4(aq) + 7KI(aq) + 8HCl(aq) = 8KCl(aq) + 4I2(s) + 4H2O(l)
K + O2 = K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
KOH + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + H2O	2KOH + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2H2O
K + KNO3 = K2O + N2	10K + 2KNO3 = 6K2O + N2
K(s) + L2(s) = KL(s)	2K(s) + L2(s) = 2KL(s)
KSCN+CuCl2=KCl+Cu(SCN)2	2KSCN + CuCl2 = 2KCl + Cu(SCN)2
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
K+MgBr=KBr+Mg	K + MgBr = KBr + Mg
K+MgBr=KBr=Mg	K + MgBr = KBr + Mg
K2O2+K=K2O	K2O2 + 2K = 2K2O
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KI + KClO3 + HCl = KCl + H2O + I2	6KI + KClO3 + 6HCl = 7KCl + 3H2O + 3I2
KMnO4+HBr=Br2+KBr+MnBr2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HBr = 5Br2 + 2KBr + 2MnBr2 + 8H2O
KBr+HNO3=KNO3+NO+Br2+H2O	6KBr + 8HNO3 = 6KNO3 + 2NO + 3Br2 + 4H2O
KBrO4 + KBr +HCl = KCl +Br2 + H2O	KBrO4 + 7KBr + 8HCl = 8KCl + 4Br2 + 4H2O
K3PO4+NaOH=NaPO4+K3OH	K3PO4 + NaOH = NaPO4 + K3OH
KI + H2SO4 = KHSO4 + I2 + S + H2O	6KI + 7H2SO4 = 6KHSO4 + 3I2 + S + 4H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2Cr2O7+HCl=KCl+CrCl3+Cl2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7+HCl=KCl+CrCl3+Cl2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7+KI+H2SO4=K2SO4+Cr2(SO4)3+I2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = 4K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3I2 + 7H2O
K2C2O4 + H+ Cl- = KCl +CO2 + H+	-1K2C2O4 + 2H - 2Cl- = -2KCl - 2CO2 + 2H+
K2C2O4 +HCl + H2O = KCl +CO2 + H2O	0K2C2O4 + 0HCl + H2O = 0KCl + 0CO2 + H2O
K(NO3)+NaCl=KCl+Na(NO3)	K(NO3) + NaCl = KCl + Na(NO3)
K(NO3)+NaCl=KCl+NaNO3	K(NO3) + NaCl = KCl + NaNO3
K+HCl=KHCl	K + HCl = KHCl
KIO3 + KI + 6H+ = I2 +3H2O + 2K	0KIO3 + 2KI + 0H+ = I2 + 0H2O + 2K
KNO3+S=SO2+K2O+NO	4KNO3 + 3S = 3SO2 + 2K2O + 4NO
KClO3= KCl +O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K + Br2 = KBr	2K + Br2 = 2KBr
KClO3+C=KCl+CO2	2KClO3 + 3C = 2KCl + 3CO2
K2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 = KOH + MgSO4	K2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 = 2KOH + MgSO4
K2CrO4+Na2SO3+HCl=KCl+Na2SO4+CrCl3+H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
KMnO4 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 = MnSO4 + Fe(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H2O	4KMnO4 + 5FeSO4 + 16H2SO4 = 4MnSO4 + 5Fe(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 16H2O
K2Cr2O4 + HI + HClO4 = KClO4 + Cr(ClO4)3 + I + H2O	K2Cr2O4 + 0HI + 8HClO4 = 2KClO4 + 2Cr(ClO4)3 + 0I + 4H2O
KCLO3= KCL + O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KBr +AgNO3 = KNO3 + AgBr	KBr + AgNO3 = KNO3 + AgBr
KNO3 + Pb(NO3)2 = K(NO3)2 + PbNO3	KNO3 + Pb(NO3)2 = K(NO3)2 + PbNO3
KOH+H2SO4=K2SO4+H2O	2KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2H2O
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
K+Cl2=KCl	2K + Cl2 = 2KCl
KNO3+H2CO3=K2CO3+HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KIO3+5KI+ 3H2SO4= 3I2+3H2O+3K2SO4	KIO3 + 5KI + 3H2SO4 = 3I2 + 3H2O + 3K2SO4
K2CO3+HNO3=KNO3+CO2+H2O	K2CO3 + 2HNO3 = 2KNO3 + CO2 + H2O
KO2 +H2O +CO2 =KHCO3 +O2	4KO2 + 2H2O + 4CO2 = 4KHCO3 + 3O2
KMnO4+Na2SnO2+H2O=MnO2+Na2SnO3+KOH	2KMnO4 + 3Na2SnO2 + H2O = 2MnO2 + 3Na2SnO3 + 2KOH
K3PO4+Fe2 (SO4 )3=K2SO4+FePO4	2K3PO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 = 3K2SO4 + 2FePO4
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2CrO4 + FeCl3 = K2Cl3 + FeCrO4	K2CrO4 + FeCl3 = K2Cl3 + FeCrO4
K2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 = PbCrO4 + KNO3	K2CrO4 + Pb(NO3)2 = PbCrO4 + 2KNO3
K2CrO4 + Ba(NO3)2 = BaCrO4 + 2K(NO3)	K2CrO4 + Ba(NO3)2 = BaCrO4 + 2K(NO3)
KBrO3 + 3SO2 + 3H2O = KBr +3H2SO4	KBrO3 + 3SO2 + 3H2O = KBr + 3H2SO4
KHCO3 + H3PO4 =K2HPO4 + H2O + CO2	2KHCO3 + H3PO4 = K2HPO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2
KClO4+H2SO4+FeS=Fe(SO4)3+KCl+H2O	3KClO4 + 4H2SO4 + 2FeS = 2Fe(SO4)3 + 3KCl + 4H2O
KMnO4 + SnSO4+ H2SO4=K1SO4 + 2MnSO4+Sn(SO4)2 + H2O	KMnO4 + 2SnSO4 + 4H2SO4 = K1SO4 + MnSO4 + 2Sn(SO4)2 + 4H2O
KMnO4+FeSO4+H2SO4=MnSO4+K2SO4+Fe(SO4)3+H2O	4KMnO4 + 5FeSO4 + 16H2SO4 = 4MnSO4 + 2K2SO4 + 5Fe(SO4)3 + 16H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2Cr2O7 + KI + H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 4K2SO4 + 3I2 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7 + KI + H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 4K2SO4 + 3I2 + 7H2O
KIO3=KI=O2	2KIO3 = 2KI + 3O2
KMnO4 + MgS = K2S + Mg (MnO4)2	2KMnO4 + MgS = K2S + Mg(MnO4)2
KMnO4 + FeSO4 + H2SO4 = MnSO4 + K2SO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
K2O2+CO2=K2CO3+O2	2K2O2 + 2CO2 = 2K2CO3 + O2
K3C6H5O7+CO2+H2O=H3C6H5O7+KHCO3	K3C6H5O7 + 3CO2 + 3H2O = H3C6H5O7 + 3KHCO3
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
KClO3=KClO4+KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
KI + Pb(NO3)2= KNO3+PbI2	2KI + Pb(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + PbI2
K+H2O=KOH=H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
K2CO3 + Sr(NO3)2 = KNO3 + SrCO3	K2CO3 + Sr(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + SrCO3
K + KNO3 = K2O + N2	10K + 2KNO3 = 6K2O + N2
KClO3(s)=KCl(s)+O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4+C2H6O+HCl=MnCl2+C2H4O2+H2O+KCl	4KMnO4 + 5C2H6O + 12HCl = 4MnCl2 + 5C2H4O2 + 11H2O + 4KCl
KMnO4+C2H6O+HCl=MnCl2+C2H4O2+H2O+KCl	4KMnO4 + 5C2H6O + 12HCl = 4MnCl2 + 5C2H4O2 + 11H2O + 4KCl
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KClO3=KClO4+KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
KMnO4 + HCl = Cl2 + MnCl2 + KCl + H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2MnCl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
KOH + Cu(NO3)2 =KNO3+Cu(OH)2	2KOH + Cu(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + Cu(OH)2
KI + Pb(NO3)2 =PbI2 +KNO3	2KI + Pb(NO3)2 = PbI2 + 2KNO3
KNO3 =KNO2 +O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
K + H2O =H2 + KOH	2K + 2H2O = H2 + 2KOH
K2Cr2O7 + HI + H2SO4 = I2 + Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6HI + 4H2SO4 = 3I2 + Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7 + HNO3 + H2O2 = KNO3 + Cr(NO3)3 + 2HO	0K2Cr2O7 + 0HNO3 + H2O2 = 0KNO3 + 0Cr(NO3)3 + 2HO
K2Cr2O7 + HNO3 + H2O2 = KNO3 + Cr(NO3)3 + 2HO	0K2Cr2O7 + 0HNO3 + H2O2 = 0KNO3 + 0Cr(NO3)3 + 2HO
K2Cr2O7 + SnCl2 + HCl = CrCl3 + SnCl4 + KCl + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 3SnCl2 + 14HCl = 2CrCl3 + 3SnCl4 + 2KCl + 7H2O
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KMnO4 + Fe(NO2)2 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Fe2(SO4) 3 + HNO3 H2O	2KMnO4 + 2Fe(NO2)2 + 6H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + 4HNO3H2O
KNO3 + P4 = P2O5 + KN	10KNO3 + 3P4 = 6P2O5 + 10KN
KMnO4+H2C2O4=K2CO3+MnO2+CO2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 3H2C2O4 = K2CO3 + 2MnO2 + 5CO2 + 3H2O
K2CO3 + Pb(NO3)2 = KNO3 + PbCO3	K2CO3 + Pb(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + PbCO3
K2CO3 + HF = KF + CO2 + H2O	K2CO3 + 2HF = 2KF + CO2 + H2O
KMnO4 + HCl + KI + NaHSO4 = KCl + H2SO3 + MnO2 + H2O + NaI	-2KMnO4 + HCl + 3KI + 3NaHSO4 = KCl + 3H2SO3 - 2MnO2 - H2O + 3NaI
K2SO3(aq)+MnCl2(aq)=MnSO3(s)+KCl(aq)	K2SO3(aq) + MnCl2(aq) = MnSO3(s) + 2KCl(aq)
KClO = KCl + O2	2KClO = 2KCl + O2
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + C2H6O + H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + C2H4O	K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3C2H6O + 17H2O = K2Cr2(SO4)4*24H2O + 3C2H4O
KClO3 (s) = KCl (s) + O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
KIO3 + H2SO3 = KI + H2SO4	KIO3 + 3H2SO3 = KI + 3H2SO4
KNO3+HBr=HNO3+KBr	KNO3 + HBr = HNO3 + KBr
KI+Pb(NO3)2=PbI2+KNO3	2KI + Pb(NO3)2 = PbI2 + 2KNO3
KCLO3=KCLO4+KCL	4KCLO3 = 3KCLO4 + KCL
KClO3=KClO4+KCl	4KClO3 = 3KClO4 + KCl
KI+Pb(NO3)2=PbI2+KNO3	2KI + Pb(NO3)2 = PbI2 + 2KNO3
K+H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K + H2O=KOH + H	K + H2O = KOH + H
K+ H2O = KOH + H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
KI+H2SO4=KHSO4+I2+S+H2O	6KI + 7H2SO4 = 6KHSO4 + 3I2 + S + 4H2O
K2O + SO3 = K2SO4	K2O + SO3 = K2SO4
KClO3 (s) =KCl (s) + O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
K+O2=K2O	4K + O2 = 2K2O
KCLO3 = KCL + O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
KCl+MnO2+H2SO4 = K2SO4+MnSO4+Cl2+H2O	2KCl + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Cl2 + 2H2O
K(s)+H2(g)=KH(s)	2K(s) + H2(g) = 2KH(s)
K2Cr2O7 + HCl = KCl + CrCl3 + Cl2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 14HCl = 2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O
KMnO4 + NaNO2 + H2O = MnO2 + NaNO3 + KOH	2KMnO4 + 3NaNO2 + H2O = 2MnO2 + 3NaNO3 + 2KOH
KMnO4 + H2O + SO2 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2SO4	2KMnO4 + 2H2O + 5SO2 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 2H2SO4
KMnO4+H2C2O4+H2SO4=MnSO4+H2O+10CO2+K2SO4	2KMnO4 + 5H2C2O4 + 3H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2 + K2SO4
K2CrO4+Ba(NO3)2=KNO3 + BaCrO4	K2CrO4 + Ba(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + BaCrO4
K2MnO4 + H2O2 = KMnO4 + MnO2 + KOH	2K2MnO4 + H2O2 = 2KMnO4 + 0MnO2 + 2KOH
K2MnO4 + H2O2 = MnO2 + KOH + H2O	-1K2MnO4 + H2O2 = -1MnO2 - 2KOH + 2H2O
K2Cr2O7 + C2H5OH + H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + CH3CHO + K2SO4 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 3C2H5OH + 4H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 3CH3CHO + K2SO4 + 7H2O
KMnO4 + SnCl2 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + SnCl4 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 5SnCl2 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5SnCl4 + 8H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KOH+FeCl2=Fe(OH)2+KCl	2KOH + FeCl2 = Fe(OH)2 + 2KCl
KI+KIO3+H2SO4=I2+K2SO4H2O	5KI + KIO3 + 3H2SO4 = 3I2 + 3K2SO4H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KIO3+5KI+6H2SO4=K2S2O3+3I2+3H2O	-1KIO3 + 3KI + 2H2SO4 = K2S2O3 + I2 + 2H2O
KIO3+KI+H2SO4=K2S2O3+I2+H2O	-1KIO3 + 3KI + 2H2SO4 = K2S2O3 + I2 + 2H2O
KIO3+KI+H2SO4=K2S2O3+I2+H20	-25KIO3 + 55KI + 30H2SO4 = 15K2S2O3 + 15I2 + 3H20
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + H2SO4 + Na2SO3 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5Na2SO3 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5Na2SO4 + 3H2O
KCN+Co(CN)2+HCN=K3Co(CN)6+H2	6KCN + 2Co(CN)2 + 2HCN = 2K3Co(CN)6 + H2
KMnO4+FeSO4+H2SO4=K2SO4+MnSO4+Fe2(SO4)3+H2O	2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 8H2O
KClO3 (s) = KCl (s) + O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
KBr+Cl2=KCl+Br2	2KBr + Cl2 = 2KCl + Br2
K(ClO3)=KCl+O2	2K(ClO3) = 2KCl + 3O2
KMnO4+H2SO4+H2C2O4 = K2SO4+MnSO4+H2O+CO2	2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2C2O4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2
KOH(s) + KH2PO4(aq) = K3PO4(aq) + H2O(l)	2KOH(s) + KH2PO4(aq) = K3PO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
KOH+H2CO3=K2CO3+H2O	2KOH + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2H2O
K + HOH = KOH +H2	2K + 2HOH = 2KOH + H2
KOH+H2CO3=K2CO3+H2O	2KOH + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2H2O
KClO3(s) = KCl(s) + O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
KOH+H2CO3=K2CO3+H2O	2KOH + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2H2O
KOH+HBr=KBr+H2O	KOH + HBr = KBr + H2O
KOH + H3PO4= K3PO4 +H2O=	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
KOH + H3PO4= K3PO4 +H2O=	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KNO2+KMnO4+H2SO4=KNO3+MnSO4+K2SO4+H2O	5KNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = 5KNO3 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 3H2O
K + I = KI	K + I = KI
K + I = KI	K + I = KI
K(s)+NH3(g)=KNH3	K(s) + NH3(g) = KNH3
KNO2+KMnO4+H2SO4=KNO3+MnSO4+K2SO4+H2O	5KNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = 5KNO3 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 3H2O
K+MgBr2= KBr + Mg	2K + MgBr2 = 2KBr + Mg
KClO3 (s) = KCl (s) + O2(g)	2KClO3(s) = 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
KBr + AgNO3 = KNO3 + AgBr	KBr + AgNO3 = KNO3 + AgBr
K(s)+NH3(g)=KNH3	K(s) + NH3(g) = KNH3
KI +Br2 = KBr+ I2	2KI + Br2 = 2KBr + I2
K2CrO4+Na2SO3+HCl=KCl+Na2SO4+CrCl3+H2O	2K2CrO4 + 3Na2SO3 + 10HCl = 4KCl + 3Na2SO4 + 2CrCl3 + 5H2O
KMnO4 + CaC2O4 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + MnSO4 + CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 5CaC2O4 + 8H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 5CaSO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K2Cl+AgNO3=KNO3+Ag2Cl	K2Cl + 2AgNO3 = 2KNO3 + Ag2Cl
KClO4 + HI=KCl+I2 +H2O	KClO4 + 8HI = KCl + 4I2 + 4H2O
KNO2+KMnO4+H2SO4=KNO3+MnSO4+K2SO4+H2O	5KNO2 + 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 = 5KNO3 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 3H2O
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KOH+Zn+H2O+KNO3=K2Zn(OH) 4+NH3	7KOH + 4Zn + 6H2O + KNO3 = 4K2Zn(OH)4 + NH3
KIO3+NaHSO3=KI+3NaSO4+H	KIO3 + 3NaHSO3 = KI + 3NaSO4 + 3H
K(s)+NH3(g)=KH+N	3K(s) + NH3(g) = 3KH + N
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KMnO4 + (HO2C)2= CO2 + H2O + KMn(OH)2	KMnO4 + 3(HO2C)2 = 6CO2 + 2H2O + KMn(OH)2
KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 +HNO3	2KNO3 + H2CO3 = K2CO3 + 2HNO3
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + H2O	3KOH + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3H2O
K2Cr2O7+FeSO4+H2SO4 = K2SO4+Fe2(SO4)3+Cr(SO4)3+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 0FeSO4 + 7H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 0Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Cr(SO4)3 + 7H2O
KL + F2O + H2O = HF + KOH + L2	4KL + F2O + 3H2O = 2HF + 4KOH + 2L2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4+NH3 = KNO3+MnO2+KOH+H2O	8KMnO4 + 3NH3 = 3KNO3 + 8MnO2 + 5KOH + 2H2O
KMnO4+C2O4H2+H2SO4 = K2SO4+MnSO4+CO2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 5C2O4H2 + 3H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 10CO2 + 8H2O
KMnO4+NaClO2+H2O = MnO2+NaClO4+KOH	4KMnO4 + 3NaClO2 + 2H2O = 4MnO2 + 3NaClO4 + 4KOH
K2Cr2O7+KI+H2SO4 = K2SO4+Cr2(SO4)3+I2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = 4K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3I2 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7+FeSO4+H2SO4 = K2SO4+Fe2(SO4)3+Cr(SO4)3+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 0FeSO4 + 7H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 0Fe2(SO4)3 + 2Cr(SO4)3 + 7H2O
KMnO4+HCl = Cl2+KCl+MnCl2+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + CH3CH2OH = Cr2 (SO4)3 + H2O + CH3CHO + K2SO4	K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3CH3CH2OH = Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3CH3CHO + K2SO4
KBr + H2SO4 + MNO2 = KHSO4 + MNSO4 + Br2 + H2O	2KBr + 3H2SO4 + MNO2 = 2KHSO4 + MNSO4 + Br2 + 2H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4+HCl=Cl2+MnCl2+KCl+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2MnCl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
KNO3=KNO2+O2	2KNO3 = 2KNO2 + O2
KI + Cu(SO4) = K(SO4) + CuI	KI + Cu(SO4) = K(SO4) + CuI
KOH+Cu(NO3)2=Cu(OH)2+KNO3	2KOH + Cu(NO3)2 = Cu(OH)2 + 2KNO3
KIO3+Cl2+KOH=KIO4+KCl+H2O	KIO3 + Cl2 + 2KOH = KIO4 + 2KCl + H2O
KMnO4+HCl= Cl2+ MnCl2+KCl+H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 5Cl2 + 2MnCl2 + 2KCl + 8H2O
KCl + O2 = KClO3	2KCl + 3O2 = 2KClO3
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + H2S = KHSO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O	4K2Cr2O7 + 17H2SO4 + 3H2S = 8KHSO4 + 4Cr2(SO4)3 + 16H2O
K2SO3+Cl2+H2O=K2SO4+HCl	K2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O = K2SO4 + 2HCl
K(s) + Cl2(g) + O2(g) = KClO3(s)	2K(s) + Cl2(g) + 3O2(g) = 2KClO3(s)
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K3PO4+BaCl2=KCl+Ba3(PO4)2	2K3PO4 + 3BaCl2 = 6KCl + Ba3(PO4)2
KOH+H2SO4=K2SO4+H2O	2KOH + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2H2O
K2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) = BaSO4(s) + KCl(aq)	K2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) = BaSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq)
KCl (aq) + Pb(C2H3O2)2 = 2KC2H3O2 (aq) + PbCl2 (s)	2KCl(aq) + Pb(C2H3O2)2 = 2KC2H3O2(aq) + PbCl2(s)
K2CO3+H3PO4=K3PO4+H2O+CO2	3K2CO3 + 2H3PO4 = 2K3PO4 + 3H2O + 3CO2
KCLO3 =KCL + O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
KCLO3 =KCL + O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
K+H2O=K(OH)+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2K(OH) + H2
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + Cl2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 5Cl2 + 8H2O
K2CO3=K2O+CO2	K2CO3 = K2O + CO2
KBr+H3PO4=K3PO4+HBr	3KBr + H3PO4 = K3PO4 + 3HBr
K2Cr2O7 + HI + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + I2 + H20	0K2Cr2O7 + 20HI + 0H2SO4 = 0K2SO4 + 0Cr2(SO4)3 + 10I2 + H20
K2Cr2O7 + HI + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6HI + 4H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3I2 + 7H2O
K+O2=K2O2	2K + O2 = K2O2
K2CrO4 + Fe(OH)2 + H2O = KCrO2 + Fe(OH)3 + KOH	K2CrO4 + 3Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O = KCrO2 + 3Fe(OH)3 + KOH
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KCLO3=KCL+O2	2KCLO3 = 2KCL + 3O2
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
KClO3=KCl+O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K+H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
K(s)+H2O(l)=KOH(aq)+H2(g)	2K(s) + 2H2O(l) = 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
KL + Pb(NO3)2 = KNO3 + PbL2	2KL + Pb(NO3)2 = 2KNO3 + PbL2
K3PO4 + HCl = KCl + H3PO4	K3PO4 + 3HCl = 3KCl + H3PO4
K2CO3 + H2O = KOH + KHCO3	K2CO3 + H2O = KOH + KHCO3
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + KI = I2 + K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 7H2SO4 + 6KI = 3I2 + 4K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + KI = I2 + K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 7H2SO4 + 6KI = 3I2 + 4K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) = KCl(aq ) + H2O(l)	KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) = KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
KO2+H20+CO2=KHCO3+O2	20KO2 + H20 + 20CO2 = 20KHCO3 + 10O2
K+H2O=KOH+H2	2K + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2
K(s) + I2(s) = KI(s)	2K(s) + I2(s) = 2KI(s)
KMnO4 + NaNO2 + KOH = K2MnO4 + NaNO3 + H2O	2KMnO4 + NaNO2 + 2KOH = 2K2MnO4 + NaNO3 + H2O
KMnO4 + NaNO2 + KOH = K2MnO4 + NaNO3 + H2	2KMnO4 + 2NaNO2 + 2KOH = 2K2MnO4 + 2NaNO3 + H2
KMnO4 + NaNO2 + H2O = MnO2 + KOH + NaNO3	2KMnO4 + 3NaNO2 + H2O = 2MnO2 + 2KOH + 3NaNO3
KCLO3 = KCLO4 + KCL	4KCLO3 = 3KCLO4 + KCL
KMnO4 + NaNO2 + H2SO4 = MnSO4 + K2SO4 + Na2SO4 + NO2 + H2O	2KMnO4 + 10NaNO2 + 8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 5Na2SO4 + 10NO2 + 8H2O
KIO4 + KI + HCl = KCl + I2 + H2O	KIO4 + 7KI + 8HCl = 8KCl + 4I2 + 4H2O
K2SO3+HCl=KCl+H2SO3	K2SO3 + 2HCl = 2KCl + H2SO3
K+HN3=KHN3	K + HN3 = KHN3
K2Cr2O7+KI+H2SO4=Cr2(SO4)3+K2SO4+I2+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6KI + 7H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 4K2SO4 + 3I2 + 7H2O
KAl(SO4)2*12H2O+BaCl2=KCl+AlCl3+BaSO4+H2O	KAl(SO4)2*12H2O + 2BaCl2 = KCl + AlCl3 + 2BaSO4 + 12H2O
KIO3 (aq) + 3 NaHSO3 (aq) = 3 NaHSO4 (aq) + KI (aq)	KIO3(aq) + 3NaHSO3(aq) = 3NaHSO4(aq) + KI(aq)
K4Fe(CN)6 + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 = Fe2(SO4)3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + CO2 + H2O + K2SO4 + KNO3	6K4Fe(CN)6 + 61K2Cr2O7 + 247H2SO4 = 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 61Cr2(SO4)3 + 36CO2 + 247H2O + 55K2SO4 + 36KNO3
K4Fe(SCN)6 + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 = Fe2(SO4)3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + CO2 + H2O + K2SO4 + KNO3	6K4Fe(SCN)6 + 97K2Cr2O7 + 355H2SO4 = 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 97Cr2(SO4)3 + 36CO2 + 355H2O + 91K2SO4 + 36KNO3
KCN+PbO2+HCl=KCl+PbCl2+CO2+N2O5+H2O	2KCN + 10PbO2 + 22HCl = 2KCl + 10PbCl2 + 2CO2 + N2O5 + 11H2O
K2O + H2O = KOH	K2O + H2O = 2KOH
KI + Br2 = KBr + I2	2KI + Br2 = 2KBr + I2
K2Cr2O7 + HI + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + I2 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 6HI + 4H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 3I2 + 7H2O
KBr(aq)+AgNO3(aq)=KNO3(aq)+AgBr(s)	KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) = KNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)
KBr(aq)+AgNO3(aq)=KNO3(aq)+AgBr(s)	KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) = KNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)
KClO3 =KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KClO3 = KCl +O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
K4Fe(SCN)6 + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 = Fe2(SO4)3 + Cr2(SO4)3 + CO2 + H2O + K2SO4 + KNO3	6K4Fe(SCN)6 + 97K2Cr2O7 + 355H2SO4 = 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 97Cr2(SO4)3 + 36CO2 + 355H2O + 91K2SO4 + 36KNO3
K2Cr2O7+SnCl2+HCl=CrCl3+SnCl4+KCl+H2O	K2Cr2O7 + 3SnCl2 + 14HCl = 2CrCl3 + 3SnCl4 + 2KCl + 7H2O
K2SO4(aq) + BaBr2(aq) = KBr(aq) + BaSO4(aq)	K2SO4(aq) + BaBr2(aq) = 2KBr(aq) + BaSO4(aq)
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2
K3PO4+Mg(OH)2=Mg3(PO4)2+KOH	2K3PO4 + 3Mg(OH)2 = Mg3(PO4)2 + 6KOH
KI+Cl=KCl+I	KI + Cl = KCl + I
K2SO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)=K2CO3+Na2SO4	K2SO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) = K2CO3 + Na2SO4
KI + Cl2 = KCl + I2	2KI + Cl2 = 2KCl + I2
KClO3 = KCl + O2	2KClO3 = 2KCl + 3O2
KNO3 + S + C12H22O11 = K2S + N2 + CO2 + H2O	8KNO3 + 4S + C12H22O11 = 4K2S + 4N2 + 12CO2 + 11H2O
KIO4+KI+HCL=KCL+I2+H2O	KIO4 + 7KI + 8HCL = 8KCL + 4I2 + 4H2O
K3Po4 + CaCl2 = Ca3(Po4)2 + KCl	2K3Po4 + 3CaCl2 = Ca3(Po4)2 + 6KCl
KCIO3= KCI+O2	2KCIO3 = 2KCI + 3O2
KCIO3= KCI+O2	2KCIO3 = 2KCI + 3O2
KCIO4= KCI+O2	KCIO4 = KCI + 2O2
KCIO4= KCI+O2	KCIO4 = KCI + 2O2
K2Cr2O7 + KI + H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + KIO3 + K2SO4 + H2O	K2Cr2O7 + KI + 4H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + KIO3 + K2SO4 + 4H2O
KMnO4 + HCl = KCl + MnCl2 + H2O + Cl2	2KMnO4 + 16HCl = 2KCl + 2MnCl2 + 8H2O + 5Cl2

Fertilizer manufacturing units in EG dist. on expansion mode

May 8, 2015, 6:48 am

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Fertilizer manufacturing units in EG dist. on expansion mode

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The NFCL, Kakinada, plans to increase production once natural gas supply through GAIL pipeline is resumed.- Photo: Special Arrangement

Fertilizer manufacturing units are on an expansion mode in East Godavari district, thanks to availability of resources such as natural gas, water and quality manpower. Two fertilizer majors – Nagarjuna Fertilizers and Chemicals Limited (NFCL) and the Coromandel International – which already have established their units in Kakinada, have registered a significant increase in their production over a period of time. Natural gas, allocated by the Reliance and the ONGC, is being supplied through GAIL pipelines to the NFCL, which has shifted from naphtha to natural gas five years ago.

Similarly, water is being supplied through the Dowlaiswaram canal from Godavari River. Of the total manufacturing capacity of 16 lakh tonnes per annum, the firm is now producing 12.5 lakh tonnes, catering to the one third of the total fertilizer need of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

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The NFCL has made arrangements for opening its third plant in the district

The firm caters to the one third of the total fertilizer need of AP and TS

 http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/fertilizer-manufacturing-units-in-eg-dist-on-expansion-mode/article7182640.ece

Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada Dated :May 08, 2015

May 8, 2015, 6:12 pm

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Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada    Dated :May 08, 2015

	Past 24 Hours Weather Data Maximum Temp(oC) 38.6 Departure from Normal(oC) 2 Minimum Temp (oC) 27.6 Departure from Normal(oC) 1 24 Hours Rainfall (mm) NIL Todays Sunset (IST) 18:23 Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:32 Moonset (IST) 08:56 Moonrise (IST) 22:12
Today's Forecast:Sky condition would be generally cloudy. Rain or Thundershowers may occur in parts of city. Maximum & Minimum temperatures would be around 39 and 27 degrees Celsius respectively.
Date Temperature ( o C ) Weather Forecast Minimum Maximum 09-May 26.0 39.0 Partly cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm 10-May 26.0 39.0 Partly cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm 11-May 27.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 12-May 27.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 13-May 27.0 39.0 Partly cloudy sky 14-May 27.0 39.0 Partly cloudy sky

	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	32 °C	-
Max Temperature	38 °C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	27 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	26
Growing Degree Days	41 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	26 °C
Average Humidity	69
Maximum Humidity	87
Minimum Humidity	48
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1006.62 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	2 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	9 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	7.0 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity

May 8, 2015, 7:21 pm

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Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity

Dynamic, absolute and kinematic viscosity - and how to convert between CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler

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The viscosity is an important fluid property when analyzing liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. The shear resistance in a fluid is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by one another.

• viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow

• molasses is highly viscous
• water is medium viscous
• gas is low viscous

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity

• dynamic (or absolute)
• kinematic

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity

Absolute viscosity - coefficient of absolute viscosity - is a measure of internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one horizontal plane with respect to an other plane - at an unit velocity - when maintaining an unit distance apart in the fluid.
The shearing stress between the layers of a non turbulent fluid moving in straight parallel lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as

The dynamic viscosity can be expressed

τ = μ dc / dy         (1)
where
τ = shearing stress (N/m²)
μ = dynamic viscosity (N s/m²)
dc = unit velocity (m/s)
dy = unit distance between layers (m)

Equation (1) is known as the Newtons Law of Friction.
In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m², Pa s or kg/(m s) - where

• 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m² = 1 kg/(m s)

Dynamic viscosity may also be expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system as g/(cm s), dyne s/cm² or poise (p) where

• 1 poise = 1 dyne s/cm² = 1 g/(cm s) = 1/10 Pa s = 1/10 N s/m²

For practical use the Poise is normally too large and the unit is often divided by 100 - into the smaller unit centiPoise (cP) - where

• 1 p = 100 cP
• 1 cP = 0.01 poise = 0.01 gram per cm second = 0.001 Pascal second = 1 milliPascal second = 0.001 N s/m²

Water at 20.2^oC (68.4^oF) has the absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

Liquid	Absolute Viscosity *) (Pa s)
Air	1.983 x 10-5
Water	1 x 10-3
Olive Oil	1 x 10-1
Glycerol	1 x 100
Liquid Honey	1 x 101
Golden Syrup	1 x 102
Glass	1 x 1040

*) at room temperature

• 
  

Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a quantity in which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density.

ν = μ / ρ        (2)
where
ν = kinematic viscosity (m²/s)
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m²)
ρ = density (kg/m³)

In the SI-system the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosity is m²/s - or Stoke (St)where

• 1 St (Stokes) = 10^-4 m²/s = 1 cm²/s

Since the Stoke is a large unit it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit Centistoke (cSt) - where

• 1 St = 100 cSt
• 1 cSt (centiStoke) = 10^-6 m²/s = 1 mm²/s

The specific gravity for water at20.2^oC (68.4^oF) is almost one, and the kinematic viscosity for water at 20.2^oC (68.4^oF) is for practical purpose 1.0 mm²/s (cStokes). A more exact kinematic viscosity for water at 20.2^oC (68.4^oF) is 1.0038 mm²/s (cStokes).

• 
  

A conversion from absolute to kinematic viscosity in Imperial units can be expressed as

ν = 6.7197 10^-4μ / γ        (2a)
where
ν = kinematic viscosity (ft²/s)
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (cP)
γ = specific weight (lb/ft³)

Viscosity and Reference Temperature

The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature dependent - and for dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful the reference temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is 100^oC. For a distillate fluid the reference temperature is 40^oC.

• for a liquid - the kinematic viscosity decreases with higher temperature
• for a gas - the kinematic viscosity increases with higher temperature

• 
  

This is a free app that can be used offline on mobile devices.

Other Viscosity Units

Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS, SSU)

Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS) is an alternative unit for measuring viscosity. The efflux time is Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer - under a carefully controlled temperature and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This method has largely been replaced by the kinematic viscosity method. Saybolt Universal Seconds is also called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt Seconds Furol).
Kinematic viscosity in SSU versus dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed as

ν_SSU = B μ / SG 
  = B ν_centiStokes       (3)
where
ν_SSU = kinematic viscosity (SSU)
B = 4.632 for temperature 100 ^oF (37.8 ^oC)
B = 4.664 for temperature 210^oF (98.9 ^oC)
μ = dynamic or absolute viscosity (cP)

SG = Specific Gravity

ν_centiStokes = kinematic viscosity (centiStokes)

• SSU at other temperatures

Degree Engler

Degree Engler is used in Great Britain as a scale to measure kinematic viscosity. Unlike the Saybolt and Redwood scales, the Engler scale is based on comparing the flow of the substance being tested to the flow of another substance - water. Viscosity in Engler degrees is the ratio of the time of a flow of 200 cubic centimeters of the fluid whose viscosity is being measured  - to the time of flow of 200 cubic centimeters of water at the same temperature (usually 20^oC but sometimes 50^oC or 100^oC) in a standardized Engler viscosity meter.

Newtonian Fluids

A fluid where the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain - is designated as a Newtonian Fluid.
A Newtonian material is referred to as true liquid since the viscosity or consistency is not affected by shear such as agitation or pumping at a constant temperature. Most common fluids - both liquids and gases - are Newtonian fluids. Water and oils are examples of Newtonian liquids.

Shear-thinning or Pseudo-plastic Fluids

A Shear-thinning or pseudo-plastic fluid is a fluid where viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. The structure is time-independent.

Thixotropic Fluids

A Thixotropic fluid has a time-dependent structure. The viscosity of a thixotropic fluid decreases with increasing time - at a constant shear rate.
Ketchup and mayonnaise are examples of thixotropic materials. They appear thick or viscous but are possible to pump quite easily.

Dilatant Fluids

A Shear Thickening Fluid - or Dilatant Fluid - increases the viscosity with agitation or shear strain. Dilatant fluids are known as non-Newton fluids.
Some dilatant fluids can become almost solid in a pump or pipe line. With agitation cream becomes butter and candy compounds. Clay slurry and similar heavily filled liquids do the same thing.

Bingham Plastic Fluids

A Bingham Plastic Fluid has a yield value which must be exceeded before it will start to flow like a fluid. From that point the viscosity decreases with increasing agitation. Toothpaste, mayonnaise and tomato ketchup are examples of such products.

Example - Air, Converting between Kinematic and Absolute Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity of air at 1 bar (1 10⁵ Pa, N/m²) and 40^oC is 16.97 cSt (16.97 10^-6 m²/s).
The density of the air can be estimated with the Ideal Gas Law

ρ  = p / (R T)
    = 1 10⁵ (N/m²) / ( 287 (J/(kg K)) (273 (^oC) + 33 ( ^oC)) )
    = 1.113 (kg/m³)
where
ρ = density (kg/m³)
p = absolute pressure (Pa, N/m²)
R = individual gas constant (J/(kg K))
T = absolute temperature (K)  

The absolute viscosity can be calculated as

μ = 1.113 (kg/m³) 16.97 10^-6 (m²/s)
    = 1.88 10^-5 (kg/(m s), N s/m²)

Viscosity of some Common Liquids

centiStokes (cSt)	Saybolt Second Universal (SSU, SUS)	Typical liquid
1	31	Water (20oC)
4.3	40	Milk SAE 20 Crankcase Oil SAE 75 Gear Oil
15.7	80	No. 4 fuel oil
20.6	100	Cream
43.2	200	Vegetable oil
110	500	SAE 30 Crankcase Oil SAE 85 Gear Oil
220	1000	Tomato Juice SAE 50 Crankcase Oil SAE 90 Gear Oil
440	2000	SAE 140 Gear Oil
1100	5000	Glycerine (20oC) SAE 250 Gear Oil
2200	10,000	Honey
6250	28,000	Mayonnaise
19,000	86,000	Sour cream

Kinematic viscosity can be converted from SSU to Centistokes as

ν_Centistokes = 0.226 ν_SSU - 195 /ν_SSU
where
ν_SSU< 100
ν_Centistokes = 0.220 ν_SSU - 135 /ν_SSU
where
ν_SSU> 100

Viscosity and Temperature

Kinematic viscosity of fluids like water, mercury, oils SAE 10 and oil no. 3 - and gases like air, hydrogen and helium are indicated in the diagram below. Note that

• for liquids viscosity decreases with temperature
• for gases viscosity increases with temperature

Promoting Judicious Use Of Chemical Fertilizers And Pesticides

May 9, 2015, 6:52 am

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Promoting Judicious Use Of Chemical Fertilizers And Pesticides

Government is promoting safe and judicious use of pesticides through Central Integrated Pest Management Centres situated in different parts of the country. Farmer’s field Schools are conducted to create awareness on Integrated Pest Management strategies. State Governments and stakeholders are being exhorted to support a ‘Grow Safe Food’ campaign centred around five essential principles of judicious use-application of pesticides on the right crop, against pests for which the pesticide has been approved, at the right time, in approved doses, and as per approved method of application through training and media campaigns in Gram Panchayats and rural areas. Advisories have been sent to pesticides dealers to educate them on judicious use of pesticides in accordance with label instructions.

Government is promoting and recommending soil test based balanced and integrated nutrient management through conjunctive use of both inorganic and organic sources of plant nutrient management to sustain good soil health and higher crop productivity.

Under soil health management (SHM) component of National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), financial assistance for training to farmers including field demonstrations on balanced use of fertilizers is provided @ Rs.10,000 per training for 20 or more participants. Financial assistance for frontline field demonstrations is also provided @ Rs.20,000 for frontline field demonstrations.

Under National Mission of Sustainable Agriculture, there is a provision of financial assistance under Capital Investment Subsidy Scheme (CISS) through NABARD for establishment of bio-fertilizer/biopesticides production units (200 TPA) in which 100 percent assistance is provided to State Government up to a maximum limit of Rs.160 lakh per unit and @ 25 percent cost limited to Rs.40 lakh to individuals/private agencies.

There is no scientific evidence that about 75 percent of the cultivable land in the country has been adversely affected by excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides and has high level of toxins. However, indiscriminate and imbalanced use of fertilizers coupled with low addition of organic matter over years may result into multinutrient removal is greater than the addition.

This information was given by the Minister of State for Agriculture Sh.Mohanbhai Kundaria in Rajya Sabha today.

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Self–sufficiency in fertilizer production

May 9, 2015, 7:02 am

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Self–sufficiency in fertilizer production

The month-wise demand /requirement of fertilizers is assessed and projected by the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) in consultation with the State Governments before commencement of each cropping season.  On the basis of month-wise & state-wise projection given by DAC, Department of Fertilizers allocates sufficient/adequate quantities of fertilizers to States by issuing monthly supply plan and continuously monitors the availability. The gap in the demand and domestic production of fertilizers is met through imports.

The Government has notified the New Investment Policy (NIP) 2012 and amendment to NIP-2012 on 2^nd January 2013 and 7^th October 2014 respectively to facilitate fresh investment in urea sector to boost the indigenous production of Urea and to reduce import dependency.

All the P&K fertilizers are under the OGL. The gap between requirement and indigenous production of fertilizers is met thought imports. India’s dependency on import at present is to the extent of 25% of our requirement of Urea, 90% in case of Phosphates and 100% in case of Potash. As we are dependent on import of either finished fertilizer or its raw material to a great extent, it is not possible to achieve self-sufficiency in fertilizer sector at present. However, the Government has been encouraging Indian Companies to establish Joint Ventures abroad in Countries which are rich in fertilizer resources for production facilities with buy back arrangement and to enter into long term agreement for supply of fertilizers and fertilizer inputs to India. Further, the Department is also working with the goal of having access to acquisition of the fertilizer raw materials aboard to ensure assured supply of raw materials and fertilizers inputs to augment indigenous production and reduce import dependency.

            The production/Imports of major fertilizers in the country for the last one decade is given in the table below:-

PRODUCTION AND IMPORT OF UREA, DAP & COMPLEX FERTILIZERS FROM 2005-06 TO 2014-15
								(Figure In Lakh MT)
YEAR	UREA			DAP			COMPLEX FERTILIZERS			TOTAL
	Prod.		Import	Prod.		Import	Prod.		Import	Prod.	Import
2005-2006	200.98		20.57	46.28		24.36	67.63		0.00	314.89	44.93
2006-2007	203.09		47.18	48.52		28.41	74.64		0.00	326.25	75.59
2007-2008	198.58		69.29	42.12		27.22	58.50		0.00	299.20	96.51
2008-2009	199.22		56.67	29.93		61.91	68.48		0.00	297.63	118.58
2009-2010	211.12		52.09	42.47		57.60	80.38		0.00	333.97	109.69
2010-2011	218.80		66.09	35.37		74.09	87.27		9.80	341.44	149.98
2011-2012	219.84		77.92	39.63		68.97	77.70		36.44	337.17	183.33
2012-2013	225.75		78.66	36.47		56.41	61.80		4.01	324.02	139.08
2013-2014	227.15		70.87	36.11		32.61	69.13		3.62	332.39	107.10
2014-2015	225.85		87.49	34.44		38.17	78.32		2.91	338.61	128.57

            This information was given by Shri Hansraj Gangaram Ahir, Minister of State of the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers in the Rajya Sabha today.

Weather Prediction in the Country

May 9, 2015, 7:40 am

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Weather Prediction in the Country

            The Earth System Science Organisation (ESSO)-India Meteorological Department (IMD), New Delhi which is the national agency for issuing long range forecast for the country had predicted that the monsoon seasonal rainfall is likely to be 93% of the Long Period Average (LPA) with a model error of ± 5%. The LPA of the season rainfall over the country as a whole for the period 1951-2000 is 89 cm.

            The Minister of State for Ministry of Science and Technology and Earth Sciences Shri Y. S. Chowdary giving this information in written reply in Lok Sabha today said that this is the first stage of forecast issued on 22^nd April, 2015. He said the five (5) category probability forecasts given by the IMD for June to September rainfall over the country are as below:

Category	Rainfall Range (% of LPA)	Forecast Probability (%)	Climatological Probability (%)
Deficient	< 90	33	16
Below Normal	90 - 96	35	17
Normal	96 -104	28	33
Above Normal	104 -110	3	16
Excess	> 110	1	17

            Seasonal forecasts for the southwest monsoon season (June – September) rainfall are issued in two stages by the IMD. The first stage forecast is issued in April and the second stage forecast is issued in June.  Along with the update forecast, separate forecasts for the month (July and August) rainfall over the country as a whole and seasonal (June-September) rainfall over the four geographical regions of India will also be issued by the ESSO-IMD in June, 2015.

            The Minister said that various research Institutions in the country engaged in forecast/ research on monsoon as given below. 

Sl. No.	Institution
1	Earth System Science Organisation (ESSO)-India Meteorological Department(IMD), New Delhi
2	ESSO-Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune
3	ESSO-National centre of Medium Range Weather Forecasting(NCMRWF) ,NOIDA
4	Indian Space Research Organisation-Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad
5	Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-FOURTH PARADIGM INSTITUTE, BENGALURU
6	Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar
7	Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
8	Indian Institute of Technology, Gandhi Nagar
9	Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
10	Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
11	Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
12	Andhra University
13	Cochin University
14	University of Pune
15	Centre for Disaster Mitigation, Jain University, Bangalore
16	Center for Development of Advanced Computing, Pune
17	Skymet weather wise

Shri Chowdary also informed the House that forecasts made by some of these organizations are as follows:

Sl No.	Institution	Forecast for the 2015 southwest monsoon season rainfall over the country as whole (% of Long Period Average)
1	Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune	91% ± 5%
2	Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad	100%
3	Indian Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar	98%
4	Centre for Disaster Mitigation, Jain University, Bangalore	113% ± 5%
5	Center for Development of Advanced Computing, Pune	84%
6	Skymet weather wise	102%

            The Minister said through Indo-US collaboration, a “Monsoon Desk” has been set up for working jointly for improving seasonal forecast of Indian monsoon rainfall. Through this forum, Indian and US Scientists are exchanging their ideas and sharing their expertise. This effort has led to appreciable improvements in the efficiency of models in making better and better forecasts, he added.

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Kakinada weather

May 9, 2015, 6:01 pm

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	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	32 °C	-
Max Temperature	37°C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	27 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	24
Growing Degree Days	39 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	26 °C
Average Humidity	75
Maximum Humidity	87
Minimum Humidity	60
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1006.00 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	1 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	6 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	6.0 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

	Max	Avg	Min	Sum
Temperature
Max Temperature	38 °C	36 °C	28 °C
Mean Temperature	32 °C	31 °C	28 °C
Min Temperature	28 °C	27 °C	25 °C
Degree Days
Heating Degree Days (base 65)	0	0	0	0
Cooling Degree Days (base 65)	26	24	18	242
Growing Degree Days (base 50)	41	39	33	388
Dew Point
Dew Point	28 °C	26 °C	22 °C
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	0.0 mm	0.0 mm	0.00 mm
Snowdepth	-	-	-	-
Wind
Wind	9 km/h	1 km/h	0 km/h
Gust Wind	-	-	-
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1011 hPa	1008 hPa	1005 hPa

Monthly Weather History Graph

Chemistry of Black and White Photograpy

May 10, 2015, 3:29 am

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Chemistry of Black and White Photograpy

Light exposes tiny crystals of AgBr that are suspended in the thin layer of gelatin coated on the surface of the photographic paper.

AgBr (clear) + light --------> Ag^o (Black metal) + e^-

Exposure of the AgBr with crystals produces particles of several free silver atoms such as Ag₂^o, Ag₃^o, Ag₄^o. As light passes through the lightest regions of the negative, dark regions with the highest density of these metallic silver form -- the longer the exposure, the greater the number of silver particles. The dark regions of the negative allow less light to come into contact with the AgBr crystals. This latent image is not yet visible to the eye.
Developing enhances the latent image. More AgBr is converted to silver metal by the developer. Those grains of AgBr with metallic silver clusters l on their surface from the initial exposure of AgBr with light, react faster with the developer to produce more black silver metal. The rate of reaction is slower when AgBr grains have fewer silver metal clusters on them.

developer + Ag ⁺ (in AgBr) -------> Ag^o (Dark image) + reacted developer

The stop bath, acetic acid, stops the developer from reacting with AgBr. The image does not darken after the print is placed in the stop bath.
The fixer, sodium thiosulfate, reacts with the remaining AgBr to form a water soluble salt that can be washed out in the final step in the water bath.

Toning

Iron:
Silver metal reacts with K₃Fe(CN)₆, potassium ferricyanide, to form Fe₄[Fe(CN)₆]₃ in the presence of the iron salt in the solution. The black silver metal is replaced by this Prussian blue colored insoluble salt. Copper:
The same reaction as above is carried out with copper sulfate, CuSO₄, and potassium ferricyanide. The salt formed is Cu₂Fe(CN)₆, Hatchett's brown. The brown salt replaces the silver metal of the black image to give a copper color.
Sepia:
Sodium thiosulfate reacts in the presence of acid to produce white sulfur. The sulfur then reacts with silver metal of the image to form brown Ag₂S.

Interesting Ocean Facts

May 10, 2015, 4:31 am

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Interesting Ocean Facts

Area: about 140 million square miles (362 million sq km), or nearly 71% of the Earth's surface.

Average Depth: 12,200 feet (3,720 m).
Deepest point: 36,198 feet (11,033 m) in the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific.
Mountains: The ocean ridges form a great mountain range, almost 40,000 miles (64,000 km) long, that weaves its way through all the major oceans. It is the largest single feature on Earth.
Highest Mountain: Mauna Kea, Hawaii, rises 33,474 feet (10,203 m) from its base on the ocean floor; only 13,680 feet (4,170 m) are above sea level.

48 more facts about our oceans...

1. The oceans occupy nearly 71% of our planet's surface
2. More than 97% of all our planet's water is contained in the ocean
3. The top ten feet of the ocean hold as much heat as our entire atmosphere
4. The average depth of the ocean is more than 2.5 miles
5. The oceans provide 99 percent of the Earth's living space- the largest space in our universe known to be inhabited by living organisms
6. More than 90% of this habitat exists in the deep sea known as the abyss
7. Less than 10% of this living space has been explored by humans
8. Mount Everest (the highest point on the Earth's surface 5.49 miles) is more than 1 mile shorter than the Challenger Deep (the deepest point in the ocean at 6.86 miles)
9. The longest continuous mountain chain known to exist in the Universe resides in the ocean at more than 40,000 miles long
10. The Monterey Bay Submarine Canyon is deeper and larger in volume than the Grand Canyon
11. The Antarctic ice sheet that forms and melts over the ocean each year is nearly twice the size of the United States
12. The average temperature of the oceans is 2ºC, about 39ºF
13. Water pressure at the deepest point in the ocean is more than 8 tons per square inch, the equivalent of one person trying to hold 50 jumbo jets.
14. The Gulf Stream off the Atlantic seaboard of the United States flows at a rate nearly 300 times faster than the typical flow of the Amazon river, the world's largest river
15. The worlds oceans contain nearly 20 million tons of gold
16. The color blue is least absorbed by seawater; the same shade of blue is most absorbed by microscopic plants, called phytoplankton, drifting in seawater
17. A new form of life, based on chemical energy rather than light energy, resides in deep-sea hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges
18. A swallow of seawater may contain millions of bacterial cells, hundreds of thousands of phytoplankton and tens of thousands of zooplankton
19. The blue whale, the largest animal on our planet ever (exceeding the size of the greatest dinosaurs) still lives in the ocean; it's heart is the size of a Volkswagen
20. The gray whale migrates more than 10,000 miles each year, the longest migration of any mammal
21. The Great Barrier Reef, measuring 1,243 miles, is the largest living structure on Earth. It can be seen from the Moon.
22. More than 90 percent of the trade between countries is carried by ships and about half the communications between nations use underwater cables
23. More oil reaches the oceans each year as a result of leaking automobiles and other non-point sources than was spilled in Prince William Sound by the Exxon Valdez
24. Fish supply the greatest percentage of the world's protein consumed by humans
25. Most of the world's major fisheries are being fished at levels above their maximum sustainable yield; some regions are severely overfished
26. The Grand Banks, the pride of New England fishing for centuries, are closed due to overfishing
27. Eighty per cent of all pollution in seas and oceans comes from land-based activities.
28. Three-quarters of the world's mega-cities are by the sea.
29. By 2010, 80 per cent of people will live within 60 miles of the coast.
30. Death and disease caused by polluted coastal waters costs the global economy US$12.8 billion a year. The annual economic impact of hepatitis from tainted seafood alone is US$7.2 billion.
31. Plastic waste kills up to 1 million sea birds, 100,000 sea mammals and countless fish each year. Plastic remains in our ecosystem for years harming thousands of sea creatures everyday.
32. Over the past decade, an average of 600,000 barrels of oil a year has been accidentally spilled from ships, the equivalent of 12 disasters the size of the sinking of the oil tanker Prestige in 2002.
33. Tropical coral reefs border the shores of 109 countries, the majority of which are among the world's least developed. Significant reef degradation has occurred in 93 countries.
34. Although coral reefs comprise less than 0.5 per cent of the ocean floor, it is estimated that more than 90 per cent of marine species are directly or indirectly dependent on them.
35. There are about 4,000 coral reef fish species worldwide, accounting for approximately a quarter of all marine fish species.
36. Nearly 60 per cent of the world's remaining reefs are at significant risk of being lost in the next three decades.
37. The major causes of coral reef decline are coastal development, sedimentation, destructive fishing practices, pollution, tourism and global warming.
38. Less than one half a per cent of marine habitats are protected -- compared with 11.5 per cent of global land area.
39. The High Seas -- areas of the ocean beyond national jurisdiction -- cover almost 50 per cent of the Earth's surface. They are the least protected part of the world.
40. Although there are some treaties that protect ocean-going species such as whales, as well as some fisheries agreements, there are no protected areas in the High Seas.
41. Studies show that protecting critical marine habitats -- such as warm-and cold-water coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves -- can dramatically increase fish size and quantity.
42. More than 3.5 billion people depend on the ocean for their primary source of food. In 20 years, this number could double to 7 billion.
43. Populations of commercially attractive large fish, such as tuna, cod, swordfish and marlin have declined by as much as 90 per cent in the past century.
44. Each year, illegal longline fishing, which involves lines up to 80 miles long, with thousands of baited hooks, kills over 300,000 seabirds, including 100,000 albatrosses.
45. As many as 100 million sharks are killed each year for their meat and fins, which are used for shark fin soup. Hunters typically catch the sharks, de-fin them while alive and throw them back into the ocean where they either drown or bleed to death.
46. Global by-catch -- unintended destruction caused by the use of non-selective fishing gear, such as trawl nets, longlines and gillnets -- amounts to 20 million tons a year.
47. The annual global by-catch mortality of small whales, dolphins and porpoises alone is estimated to be more than 300,000 individuals.
48. Fishing for wild shrimp represents 2 per cent of global seafood but one-third of total by-catch. The ratio of by-catch from shrimp fishing ranges from 5:1 in temperate zones to 10:1 and more in the tropics.

Coastlines
The total length of the world's coastlines is about 315,000 miles, enough to circle the Equator 12 times.
As coastal zones become more and more crowded, the quality of coastal water will suffer, the wildlife will be displaced, and the shorelines will erode. 60% of the Pacific and 35% of the Atlantic Coast shoreline are eroding at a rate of a meter every year.
More than half the world’s population live within a 100 km or 60 miles distance from the coast. This is more than 2.7 billion people. Rapid urbanization will lead to more coastal mega-cities containing 10 million or more people. By the end of the millennium 13 out of 15 of the world’s largest cities will be located on or near the coast. Growing population in coastal areas leads to more marine pollution and distribution of coastal habitats. Some 6,5 million tons (6,500,000,000 kilo) of litter finds its way into the sea each year.
(Close to one-half of all Americans live in coastal counties).
Fisheries
The sea provides the biggest source of wild or domestic protein in the world. Each year some 70 to 75 million tons of fish are caught in the ocean. Of this amount around 29 million tons is for human consumption. The global fish production exceeds that of cattle, sheep, poultry or eggs. Fish can be produced in two ways: by capture and by aqua culture. The total production has grown 34% over the last decade.
The largest numbers of fish are located in the Southern Hemisphere due to the fact that these waters are not largely exploited by man.
Fifteen out of seventeen of the world's largest fisheries are so heavily exploited that the reproduction can't keep up. With the result that many fish populations are decreasing rapidly.
 salmon, haddock, halibut, and cod.
In the 19th century, codfish weighing up to 200 pounds used to be caught. Nowadays, a 40 pound cod is considered a giant. Reason: overfishing.
Rising Sea Level 
The sea level has risen with an average of 4-10 inches (10 to 25 cm) over the past 100 years and scientists expect this rate to increase. Sea levels will continue rising even if the climate has stabilized, because the ocean reacts slowly to changes.
10,000 years ago the ocean level was about 330 ft (110 mtr) lower than it is now.
If all the world's ice melted, the oceans would rise 200 ft (66 mtr).
Volcanic Activity 
90% of all volcanic activity on Earth occurs in the ocean. The largest known concentration of active volcanoes (approximately 1,133) on the sea floor is located in the South Pacific
Density 
The density of ocean water varies. It becomes more dense as it becomes colder, right down to its freezing point of -1.9 degrees C. (This is unlike fresh water, which is most dense at 4 degrees C, well above its freezing point.)
Water temperature 
Under the enormous pressures of the deep ocean, sea water can reach very high temperatures without boiling. A water temperature of 400 degrees C has been measured at one hydrothermal vent.
The average temperature of all ocean water is about 3.5° C.
Almost all of the deep ocean temperatures are only a little warmer than freezing (39°F).
Ice 
Antarctica has as much ice as the Atlantic Ocean has water.
10% of the earth's surface is covered with ice.
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest ocean, holding only one percent of the Earth's seawater. This is still more than 25 times as much water as all rivers and fresh water lakes.
The average thickness of the Arctic ice sheet is about 9 to 10 feet, although there are some areas as thick as 65 feet.
In the unlikely event that all the polar ice were to melt, the sea level all over the world would rise 500 to 600 feet. As a result, 85 to 90% of the Earth's surface would be covered with water as compared to the current 71%. The U.S. would be split by the Mississippi Sea, which would connect the Great Lakes with the Gulf of Mexico.
The Arctic produces 10,000 to 50,000 icebergs annually. The amount produced in the Antarctic regions is inestimable. Icebergs normally have a four-year life-span; they begin entering shipping lanes after about three years.
Carbon Dioxide Absorption 
Oceans absorb between 30% and 50% of the carbon dioxide produced by burning fossil fuel. Carbon dioxide is transported downwards by plankton. Any change in the temperature of the ocean water, influences the ability of plankton to take up carbon dioxide. This has consequences for the ecosystem, because plankton form the base of the food web.
Reefs 
Over 60% of the world's coral reefs are threatened as a result of pollution, sedimentation and bleaching due to rising water temperatures caused by global warming. Global Coral Monitoring Network (GCRMN) states that currently 27% of all coral reef worldwide has disappeared and around 2050 only 30% will be left.

Rubbish/Contamination
In one year, three times as much rubbish is dumped into the world's oceans as the weight of fish caught.
A single quart of motor oil can contaminate up to 2 million gallons of drinking water.

Gold 
If all the gold suspended in the world's seawater were mined, each person on Earth could have about 9 pounds of gold.
Oil 
Oil is one of the ocean's greatest resources. It gives us heat for our homes, endless consumer products, and the ability to run the engines of cars, planes, and boats for auto transportall over the world. Nearly one-third of the world's oil comes from offshore fields in our oceans which, as we've seen can have devastating effects on our ocean's ecosystems. The transport of ocean oil from the Arabian Gulf, The North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico reaches all corners of the globe on a daily basis.
Oil was also borne from the sea. Millions of years ago, countless marine microscopic plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) lived in the ancient seas as they do today. As they died, the skeletal remains of these tiny organisms settled to the sea floor, mixed with mud and silt, and over millions of years, formed organic-rich sedimentary layers. Other sediments continued to be deposited and further buried the organic-rich sediment layer to depths of thousands of feet, compressing the layers into a rock that would become the source for oil. Over the years, as the depth of the burial increased, pressure increased, along with the temperature. Under such conditions, and over long periods of time, the original skeletal remains of phytoplankton and zooplankton changed, breaking down into simpler substances called hydrocarbons - compounds of hydrogen and carbon. This process still continues, although it will be millions of years before the next batch of oil is done cooking.
Salinity 
Some scientists estimate that the oceans contain as much as 50 quadrillion tons (50 million billion tons=50,000,000,000,000,000) of dissolved solids. If the salt in the ocean could be removed and spread evenly over the Earth’s land surface it would form a layer more than 500 feet (166 m) thick, about the height of a 40-story officebuilding.
The ocean's principal dissolved solids are sodium salts (sodium chloride or common salt), calcium salts (calcium carbonate or lime, and calcium sulfate), potassium salts (potassium sulfate), and magnesium salts (magnesium chloride, magnesium sulfate, and magnesium bromide).
Atlantic sea water is heavier than Pacific sea water due to its higher salt content.
The freezing point of sea water depends on its salt content. Typical ocean water has about 35 grams of salt per liter and freezes at -19 degrees C.

Seawater's Inorganic Salt Components

Chloride Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Calcium Potassium Carbonic Acid Bromine Boric Acid Strontium Total  Cl- NA+ SO4-- Mg++ Ca++ K+ HCO3- Br- H3Bo3 Sr++  55.04% 30.61%  7.68%  3.69%  1.16%  1.16%  0.41%  0.19%  0.07%  0.04% 99.

Desalination 
Arabian Gulf reverse osmosis plants treat 500,000,000 gallons of sea water to obtain 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water. Daily over 500,000,000 gallons of Seawater must be heated to extremely high temperatures. Mixed with toxic chemicals the Seawater is injected under high pressure through a series of membrane filters. Only 100,000,000 gallons of fresh water is generated. The 5:1 ratio of this highly inefficient process means 400,000,000 gallons of untreated water are returned to the sea each day. The higher temperature of the discharged water causes environmental problems. Worse, the super heated brine discharge has significantly higher levels o

Environment laws will make nod easy, violations tough: Prakash Javadekar

May 10, 2015, 9:12 am

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Environment laws will make nod easy, violations tough: Prakash Javadekar

Environment Minister Prakash Javadekar was in Kochi to launch the Union government's Free Pension scheme.

 

Prakash Javadekar was replying to a query on the status of the High-Level Committee (HLC) recommendations and the Government's move to amend five key environmental laws based on it.

By: Press Trust of India | Kochi/chennai | Published on:May 10, 2015 7:09 pm

It will be easy to get permission for projects but tough in case of violations under environment laws and views of state governments on the High-Level Committee recommendations on the issue will be considered, Union Environment and Forests Minister Prakash Javadekar has said.
“Increasing the penalties, strengthening the compliance mechanism will be making life easy to get permission but tough in case of violations,” he told PTI in Kochi on Saturday.
He was replying to a query on the status of the High-Level Committee (HLC) recommendations and the Government’s move to amend five key environmental laws based on it.
Vowing to strengthen the compliance mechanism envisaged in various environment and forest laws, he said, “we want to strengthen enforcement and compliance mechanism. That is the central idea, compliance was the casualty in earlier mechanism.”
Javadekar was in Kochi to launch the Union government’s Free Pension scheme.
The HLC headed by former Cabinet Secretary TSR Subramanian reviewed environmental laws and has given its recommendations to the Centre.
The Committee’s Terms of Reference include assessment of the status of implementation of laws including Environment (Protection) Act, Indian Forests Act, Forest (Conservation) Act, Wildlife (Protection) Act vis-à-vis the objectives.
Earlier, he said in Chennai that many state governments had given their comments on the recommendations of the HLC and all such inputs would be considered together by the Centre.
“These are recommendations…many state governments have also given their comments and now, by May we have received practically many recommendations and now we will consider all recommendations together,” he said.

1. “HLC is one major input, it is one input, it is not the accepted recommendations,” he said when asked what were the major recommendations that have been accepted by the Centre.
2. It has given 55 recommendations including those related to proposals to revamp project clearance and approval process.

In a meeting with top Tamil Nadu forest officials, he said the State could peruse concepts like “memorial garden” to encourage people’s participation under the Centre’s urban green campaign.
“People can be encouraged to adopt trees by paying Rs 1,000 or Rs 2,000 per tree in memory of their beloved ones. Memorial gardens may be set as part of urban greenery efforts,” he said.
As part of the urban green initiative, some of the proposed gardens may be sponsored by corporates as well, he added.

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Report and Forecast For: Kakinada Dated :May 10, 2015 ,Fertilizers: Application & efficient Use

May 10, 2015, 5:46 pm

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Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada    Dated :May 10, 2015

	Past 24 Hours Weather Data Maximum Temp(oC) 38.0 Departure from Normal(oC) 1 Minimum Temp (oC) 27.4 Departure from Normal(oC) 0 24 Hours Rainfall (mm) NIL Todays Sunset (IST) 18:23 Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:31 Moonset (IST) 10:50 Moonrise (IST) 23:54
Today's Forecast:Sky condition would be generally cloudy. Rain or Thundershowers may occur in parts of city. Maximum & Minimum temperatures would be around 38 and 27 degrees Celsius respectively.
Date Temperature ( o C ) Weather Forecast Minimum Maximum 11-May 27.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 12-May 27.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 13-May 27.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 14-May 28.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky 15-May 28.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky 16-May 28.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky

	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	32 °C	-
Max Temperature	38 °C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	27 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	26
Growing Degree Days	40 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	25 °C
Average Humidity	63
Maximum Humidity	84
Minimum Humidity	36
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1006.25 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	0 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	6 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	7.0 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

 TODAY PREDICTION

	Max	Avg	Min	Sum
Temperature
Max Temperature	38 °C	36 °C	30 °C
Mean Temperature	32 °C	32 °C	30 °C
Min Temperature	29 °C	27 °C	25 °C
Degree Days
Heating Degree Days (base 65)	0	0	0	0
Cooling Degree Days (base 65)	26	25	21	271
Growing Degree Days (base 50)	41	39	36	431
Dew Point
Dew Point	28 °C	26 °C	22 °C
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	0.0 mm	0.0 mm	0.00 mm
Snowdepth	-	-	-	-
Wind
Wind	9 km/h	1 km/h	0 km/h
Gust Wind	-	-	-
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1011 hPa	1008 hPa	1005 hPa

Monthly Weather History Graph

Fertilizers: Application & efficient Use

Contents

Preface

I.          Introduction

II.         Time of Fertilizer Application 

III.        Methods of Fertilizer Application

IV.        Efficient use of Fertilizers

V.         Integrated Nutrient Supply

 

Preface

Efficient use of fertilizer means maximizing the production and minimizing the cost through fertilizer application. But farmers are unaware of these two facts. This booklet gives sufficient knowledge on time and methods of fertilizer application. This enables the farmer to use the fertilizers efficiently and timely.

I. Introduction

Increased agricultural productivity usually comes as a result of the effective adoption of improved technologies. Wortman and Cummings Jr (1978) of John Hopkins University--Baltimore recognized four requisites which should be met to enable farmers, regardless of size of holding, to increase productivity. The four requisites are discussed below.

1.An improved farming system: a combination of materials and practices which are clearly more productive and profitable with an acceptable low level of than those he currently uses, must be available log to the farmer.

2. Instruction at farmers' field: the farmer must be shown on his own farm or nearby how to put the practices into use, and he should understand why they are better than the prevailing ones.

3. Supply of inputs: the inputs required, including fertilizer, and, if necessary, credit to finance their purchase,  must be available to the farmer when and where he needs them, and at reasonable cost

4. Availability of markets: the farmer must have access to a nearby market that can absorb increased supplies without excessive price drops.

The third requisite, supply of inputs to which fertilizer Ion belongs, is indeed one of the most important factors for increasing yield. But merely making the inputs available to the farmers is not a complete solution in itself. Farmers must know how to make the most productive use of these inputs. Here the second requisite comes to play a key role. Although Indian soils are very responsive to fertilizer application because of their inherent low fertility, farmers find it very difficult to apply the recommended doses of Plant fertilizers because of their low purchasing power. So our effort should be not just to get increased production by fertilizer application but to get maximum possible production from a unit land area with the least amount of fertilizer applied. This concept is called efficient use of fertilizers.

To get higher responses than existing ones, time and method of application of fertilizers should be so designed as to suit properly the type of the crop grown, As such, prevailing soil and climatic conditions, and of course the nature of the fertilizer to be used.

 

II. Time of Fertilizer Application

Most of the crop plants generally require nitrogen throughout their growth period. Irrespective of the crop, all plants tend to grow at a slow pace in the beginning, rapidly in the "grand growth period" (the period at which elongation of cells, tissues and formation of organs take place) and again slow during maturity. Accordingly,  nitrogen is also taken up by the plants in keeping with the pace of plant growth. Hence use of nitrogenous fertilizers should be so timed as to ensure its supply to the to plant throughout its growth period especially during  grand growth period. Nitrogenous fertilizers are very soluble in water, hence liable to be leached. As such it is necessary to apply nitrogenous fertilizers in split doses of two-four, depending on the type of soil and the duration of the crop. When the fertilizer is applied at sowing time, it is called basal dressing; and the dose applied in standing crop is called top dressing.

Plants require phosphorus mainly during the early root development and early growth period. Besides, almost all phosphatic fertilizers release phosphorus very slowly to the plant growth unlike nitrogenous fertilizers. They are, therefore, applied only at the time of sowing i.e. basal dressing.

Intake of potash by plant is similar to nitrogen whereas time its availability is like that of phosphorus. Soils rich in so clay fix the applied potassium and release it very slowly. As such, it is advisable to apply the entire quantity of  potassic fertilizer at sowing time. However, mixtures of nitrogen and potassium can be applied in standing crop as well.

 

III. Methods of Fertilizer Application

As per crop requirement and growth pattern, plant nutrients are applied in different methods. The following are the important methods of fertilizer application.

 

A. Broadcasting

The fertilizer is spread all over the field with a view to distributing the whole quantity of fertilizer uniformly. This method of fertilizer application should not be practised where placement of fertilizers in the root zone is feasible because in this practice more amount of fertilizer is required to produce the same yield. Broadcasting of fertilizers is carried out at two stages.

1. At the time of planting: Depending on the crop, broadcasting of the fertilizer is carried out prior to sowing/planting or just before the last ploughing and incorporated in the field. Broadcasting of fertilizers at the time of planting is generally done under conditions: (a) when the soils are highly deficient in nitrogen and (b) when the previous crop has been exhaustive such as sugarcane, jowar, maize, etc.

2During crop growth period : Broadcasting in standing crop is done mainly for nitrogenous fertilizers and mostly for close spaced crop like paddy and wheat. It is called top dressing. Muriate of potash is also applied as top dressing in some crops but this is not a general practice.

Procedure

Measure the field, divide the field into convenient units, calculate and weigh the fertilizer for each unit and spread the fertilizer uniformly on the entire surface of each unit. Division of plot and quantity of fertilizer ensures greater uniformity in fertilizer application.

 

B. Placement

Fertilizers are placed in the soil before sowing irrespective of the position of the seed. Placement in standing crop can also be done in widely spaced crop growing in a limited area. For example, in young maize crop fertlizer add can be manually placed 3-4 cm away from the stem. Placement of fertilizer restricts the surface area of the fertilizer coming in contact with soil particles and thus decreases the fixation of phosphorus and potassium.

1. Plough furrow or single band placement

Fertilizer is placed in a continuous band at the bottom of the furrow opened during ploughing. Each band is covered with soil after the application. In single band placement fertilizer is applied on one side of the planted row.

Procedure

-Open the furrow with the help of plough.

-Count the number of furrows and measure the total  area of operation.

-Calculate and weigh the required dose of fertilizer for each furrow and 

                                      place the ferti1izer in the furrow.

-Cover the furrow with the soil.

2. Double band placement

In double band placement method, ferti1izer is placed and on both the sides of the row. Furrows can be opened with the help of two tyned harrow (if available); keeping the planted row in the centre. After fertilizer is placed, the furrows are covered with the soil by planking..

Placement of fertilizer is generally employed for the application of nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in the intensive agriculture and in orchards.

Deep placement of fertilizer is generally practised for application of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers in paddy fields. In this method, 15-20 cm deep furrows are opened with the help of plough and ammoniacal the fertilizer is placed in them. They are covered with soil usually by planking. This operation is done after draining out water from the field. After placement of fertilizer, field can be flooded again. This practice is also useful for concentration dry land areas. In dry land areas moisture is found  to be deeper layers of soil. Therefore deep placement can be adopted for both seed sowing and fertilizer application.

3. Ring placement

Ring placement method is mostly practised for the fruit trees in orchard or for individually grown trees..

 

Procedure

-open a ring like trench of one foot wide and four to six inches deep around the fruit tree with the help of spade corresponding to the circumference of the shoot system of the tree.

-Calculate and weigh the amount of fertilizers for each plant separately.

-Apply fertilizer uniformly in the trench

-Cover the ring with soil.

 -Apply irrigation if required.

 

C. In  situ application

When fertilizers are applied on a specific spot, it is called 'in situ' application or localized application of fertilizer in wide fertilizers. The following are the kinds of in-situ application of fertilizers.

1. Drill application

Drill application refers to the drilling of fertilizer at sowing time. Drilling the fertilizer together with seed should be avoided as it may adversely affect the germination or the young plants may get damaged due to high or concentration of chemicals in the root zone. It is advisable in to use a separate attachment for seed and fertilizer drilling. This is one of the best methods for applying phosphatic (P) and potassic (K) fertilizers to closely spaced row planted crops like wheat, maize, jowar, bajra etc. This method is also better for applying nitrogenous fertilizers. However, it is safer to drill only small quantities  of fertilizers so that germination may not be adversely

affected.

 

Procedure

-Attach the fertilizer drilling tu be to the plough.

-Measure the area of operation.

-Calculate and weigh the required fertilizers.

-Drill the fertilizer taking care of the uniform distribution in the field.

2. Dollop method

The entire quantity of fertilizer is calculated per plant and is applied on both the sides of the plant with the help of a cup by dividing it into two parts. This is considered to be very efficient method of applying nitrogenous fertilizer in widely spaced crops like cotton and fruit trees.

 

Procedure

-Count the number of plants in the area of operation.

-Calculate and weigh the required fertilizer.

-Put a mark in the fertilizer cup for the desired quantity of fertilizer for each plant.

-Dig a hole on both the side of the plants with the help of spade/appropriate tools to a depth of 10 cm.

-Apply the fertilizer equally in both the holes and cover it with soil.

3. Pellet application

In pellet method, the fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of I :10 (one part fertilizer and ten parts of soil) and made into a paste. Then small pellets of convenient size are prepared. These pellets are then applied cost to the field by depositing them in soft mud.

This method is especially useful for the application (of nitrogenous fertilizers in paddy field. This practice greatly increases the nitrogen use efficiency of paddy crop.

D. Foliar application

Foliar application refers to the spraying of fertilizer solution on. foliage (leaves) of. growing plants. .Normally, these solutions are prepared in low concentration (2-3 %) either to supply anyone plant nutrient or a combination of nutrients.

3. Av Advantages

-Foliar spraying is useful to correct the nutrient deficiency growing crops.

-In extremely dry weather condition where the plants can not take up nutrients from soil because of low moisture contents of soil, foliar spray is useful.

-When quick response of fertilizer (especially nitrogenous fertilizer) is required.

-When the widely spread foliage of plant poses difficulty, for soil application,

 

Disadvantages

-.Marginal leaf burns or scorching, may occur if strong solutions are used.

-As a solution of low concentration, only a small quantity of nutrients can be supplied at a time,

-Several applications are needed. This increases the cost of application unless it is combined with other spraying operations.

-It cannot be recommended as a sole method of application of fertilizer.

-Only Urea and micro nutrients can be applied through this method.

 

E. Precautions taken while applying fertilizers

I. Note that there is sufficient moisture in the field before applying fertilizers.

2. Ensure uniform distribution of fertilizer on the entire area of operation,

3. Avoid hot-hours or the day while applying (broad-casting) a fertilizer.

4. Choose a fair weather day preferably for broadcasting

5. Do not top dress the fertilizer when the crop leaves are wet otherwise burning and scorching of leaves may occur.

6. Confirm the compatibility of fertilizers before mixing

7. Place the fertilizer at least 5-8 cm below the soil surface.

8. Cover the fertilized furrow immediately.

9. In double band placement open the bands by keeping nitrogen the planted row in centre.

10. In ring placement open the ring near the active root zone of fruit plants (corresponding to the circumference of shoot system).

11. Avoid drilling of fertilizers and seed together especially of legumes as even a small amount of fertilizer may damage germination.

]2. Check choking of the tube from time to time.

]3. Select only spray-grade urea for foliar spray.

14. Prepare fresh solution for each spray.

15. Avoid spraying during hotter period of the day. Spraying in the evening is preferred. Spray again if it rains immediately after spraying.

16.Urea used for foliar application must not contain more than 1.5% biurate, a compound  which is highly harmful to the plants.

17. Foliar application of fertilizers should be avoided on the crops having very small leaves, i.e. compound leaf system.

18. Bulky organic manures should be applied to the field soil one month before sowing while cakes 8-10 days before sowing so that decomposition may take place properly and, nutrients are available for crop growth.

IV. Efficient Use of Fertilizers

Researches have shown that plants cannot utilize which cou more than 60% of nitrogen and 20% of phosphorous applied through fertilizers, even though the best management practices are adopted. Under ordinary conditions plants hardly avail more than 30% nitrogen and 10% .phosphorus applied through fertilizers. Major part of the nitrogenous fertilizer is either lost to the atmosphere in the form of gas or leached down in the soil along with soil water. Likewise a large portion of phosphorous is fixed with the soil particles and plants cannot avail it. Therefore, the following measures should be considered in order to obtain maximum benefit with the may minimum dose of fertilizer applied.

1. Fertilizer scheduling should be based upon soil test and crop need

The optimum requirement of a fertilizer for maximum  production depends upon the requirements of the crop on the one hand and the presence of various nutrients in the soil on the other. Soil testing gives the idea whether or hly not the soil contains sufficient nutrients to meet the requirement of a particular crop. In case of a nutrient deficiency, it should be added to the soil through fertilizers.

Soil testing also gives the information about soiI reaction. The selection of fertilizer should be based on the soil reaction. In acidic soils only those fertilizers should be used which have alkaline residual effect. In alkaline soils acid forming fertilizers should be preferred. Rock .phosphate is always preferred to super phosphate for strongly acidic soils, because in acidic soils rock phosphate gets dissolved easily and becomes available to plants.  Secondly, rock phosphate exerts alkaline residual effect which counteracts acidity of the soil. In India, where  about 30 % of the cultivated land is acidic, use of rock  Phosphate is to be encouraged.

There are, of course, many limitations to soil testing such as lack of skill in sample collection, non-availability of testing facilities and low reliability of testing methods. Yet the soil testing is a useful management tool for the farmer, in spite of its limitations. Regular soil test results from the same lab, sampled at the same time of year, can be compared with field information from year to year. This information is a valuable gauge of progress in soil fertility management and fertilizer scheduling.

2. Placement of fertilizers

In most cases, placement of fertilizers is preferred to the broadcast application, This is especially important for phosphatic and potassic fertilizers. If phosphatic and potassic fertilizers come in contact with a large volume of soil particles, the amount of nutrients (P and K) fixed condition in them will be proportionately high, The mobility of fertilizers are also very slow in the soil. Placement of fertilizers in the root zone (5-8 cm deep) increases availability of nutrients to the crop.

3. Mixing should be done carefully

Fertilizers of different kinds are mixed before their application in order to save appIication in order to save application cast and for some other reasons too. Before mixing fertilizers, the compatibility chart should be referred (refer booklet MFS-8). Mixed fertilizers should not be stored for longer time. Otherwise their nutritive value is reduced.

4. Soil texture and duration of crop

In light sandy soils, fertilizers are very vulnerable to leaching, losses leaching losses. In these soils fertilizers should be given in split doses in order to avoid excessive concentration of nutrients in the soil at a time. In long duration crops fertilizers (especially nitrogenous fertilizers) should be given the in split doses so that life long requirement of plant at all stages of its growth.

5. Water management

For the movement of nutrients in the soil, soil must contain sufficient amount of moisture. There is a positive correlation between the moisture content of the soil and to the fertilizer use efficiency. Moisture is necessary for nutrient absorption from the soil while nutrient helps in an the expansion of root system so as to enable plant to explore greater volume of soil for moisture. In dry land conditions where water is scarce, some amount of nitrogen can be supplied to the plants through sprays. In dry land areas low rate of fertilizer applications and correct placement of fertilizers have been found to increase yield. Flooded condition is not favourable for fertilizer application. Water of the field should be drained out at least a week before fertilizer application. But in the case of paddy, fertilizers (especially phosphatic and me potassic) should be applied at the time of puddling to expedite  the fertilizers to reach and get stored in the root zone of the soil.

6. Use of micronutrients

I. Very light sandy soils having too high calcium contents  (calcarious) and the soils under very high cropping intensity are very often deficient in micronutrients like zinc, iron. Application of micro-nutrients result in spectacular increase in crop yield. Micro-nutrient application in those soils enhances crop response to nitrogenous, prevents  phosphatic and potassic fertilizers as well.

7. Use of amendments

Except a few, most of the crops respond very well to commonly used fertilizers like urea, single super-phosphate and muriate of potash in neutral soil. Application of lime to the acid soil and gypsum to the alkaline soil should be carried out to bring the soil to neutral range of reaction i.e., 6.5-7.5 pH. Continuous use of a particular type of fertilizer in the same field for a few years may push the soil reaction towards acidity or alkalinity depending upon the nature of fertilizer. Use of neutralizers is, therefore, recommended for field. For, different fertilizers, different amount of neutralizers is recommended. For example, for each 100 kg of ammonium sulphate, 110 kg of lime stone neutralizer should be used. If a field is receiving 100 kg ammonium sulphate every year, 330 kg of limestone should be applied to that field at every 3 years interval.

8. Proper agronomic practices

Weed control, use of pesticides, mulching, tillage and crop rotation should be carried out timely and properly. They should not be allowed to become limiting factor to crop yield.

9. Use of organic manures

Use farm yard manure, compost or green manure in the field at the interval of at least 3-4 years. Application of fertilizers coupled with organic manures has mutually beneficial effect on each other. Organic manure prevents the loss of fertilizer nutrient from the soil and also counteract the acidic or alkaline residual impact of fertilizers. On the other hand, in presence of fertilizer- nutrients, organic manures release plant nutrients more rapidly.

10. Use of bio-fertilizers

Researches carried out at IARI, New Delhi, have shown that certain micro-organisms such as Bacillusmegatherium (a bacterium) solubilize the phosphorous years from ground rock phosphate and make it available to the growing plants, thereby increasing efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers. The bacterium is sold as ‘phosphobacterin’ biofertilizer. Another biofertilizer called, mvcorrhiza which has not yet come to the market as a biofertilizer, also holds promise to increase efficiency of phosphatic fertilizers. Extensively grown, highly branched body of hate fungal micro-organism which is the main constituent of that micorrhiza helps plant roots explore greater soil volume for phosphorus. Use of blue green algae and azolla also increases the recovery of fertilizer nutrients by plant roots from the soil.

 

II. Use of slow release fertilizers

Recently, slow release nitrogenous fertilizers like U.F. 30, urea super granules (US G) have been developed. Their use is intended for flooded conditions. In flooded conditions ordinary urea is rapidly converted into gaseous form which is not available to the plants. USG and UF-30; the forms of urea itself, release nitrogen very slowly; thereby reducing the loss of nitrogen. As a latest has development, nitrification inhibitors have also been found to slow down the rate of nitrogen release from urea. Urea is treated with these chemicals before application to the flooded field. Deep placement of urea in root zone, in the form of USG or in the mud balls (briquettes) is labour intensive and, therefore, a costly technique.

12. Use of coated urea

Coating of urea before application to the flooded field is the cheapest way to increase urea efficiency in rice of plant n fields. Coating treatment also aims at slowing the rate of release of nitrogen from ordinary urea. Two materials are mainly used for coating: sulphur and neem cake. Neem coated urea (NCU) is cheaper than sulphur coated (SCU) as the sulphur is very costly. Manufacturing of sulphur coated urea is also a complex process, while neem coated urea can be prepared by farmers themselves. NCU has performed well in trials with maize, potatoes, sugarcane and cotton.

a. Procedure to prepare NCU

Take two litres of kerosene oil and thoroughly mix it with one kg of coaltar or arabic gum, in a seed dressing drum. Put 100 kg urea in the drum and mix the contents. Now mix 25 kg of neem cake powder thoroughly. A thin -The exp coating of neem cake over urea granules takes place. Coaltar or arabic gum acts as a sticking agent. Use the fertilizer as soon as possible.

b. Use of untreated urea in paddy

If untreated urea is used in paddy field, mid term drainage has been found to increase urea use efficiency. Water which is drained out from the field about 24 hours before fertilizer application. Drainage is repeated once more The night 20-30 days after first drainage. This technique can be practised only where plenty of water and drainage facilities, are available. Foliar application of urea during the late growth stage of paddy crop also helps plants to grow better.

 V. Integrated Nutrient Supply

Fertilizers alone cannot meet the vast requirement of plant nutrients. This is largely because of the rising cost of fertilizers and partly because of inherent draw backs with the fertilizers themselves. It calls our attention towards the concept of “integrated nutrient supply". The concept of integrated nutrient supply is a broad one which embraces following considerations:

-Nutrient cycle between the soil, the crop and the animal and atmosphere.

-The question of correct nutrient balance in fertilizer use including micronutrients.

-Combined use of organic manures and fertilizers i.e. at least 40 %of nutrient requirement of a crop should be met in the form of organic manure..

-The exploitation of biological sources of nutrients.

-The matching of nutrient supply to the clopping system as a whole and not merely to the needs of specific crops.

On the basis of 1972 cattle census of India, total production of dung and urine by cattle, sheep, goats and poultry is estimated at approximately 780 million tonnes  which contains 2.2 million tonnes of nitrogen, 0.82 million tonnes of phosphorus and 1.87 million tonnes of potash. The night soil from a population of 800 million contain more plant nutrients than those in animal waste. Nutrients from all these waste products exceed the amount of nutrient currently applied through the fertilizers in our country.

If the farm wastes (urine dung and crop residues) are used in biogas plants, greater part of their nitrogen content can be preserved, while large amount of organic can also be made available for improving properties. The manurial benefits of biogas slurry are two folds. In the first place the organic matter improves . biological activity in the soil and promotes the stability of soil aggregates thereby improving the moisture retention capacity of the soil. Secondly, the direct nutrient effects  are considerable.

Biological nitrogen fixation has a tremendous potential to meet the nutrition needs. Although bio-fertilizers are becoming popular among poor and marginal farmers but still there are miles to go in that direction. Azolla and blue-green algae have been found to replace nitrogenous fertilizer as much as 30-35 per cent. They supply not only nitrogen but also many tonnes of organic matter (vital component of the soil) to a hectare of land. The utility of green manuring by dhaincha,sunhemp and other crops is already well established and the practice is very popular in some parts of the country. Millions of litres of sewage effluent, if used properly, can supply handsome amount of nutrients to the soil.

Dr. K.T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education

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May 10, 2015, 6:12 pm

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With best regards,
"Seven Billion Dreams. One Planet. Consume with Care."
(2015)

Dr. AMAR NATH GIRI

EHSQ , NFCL
M.Sc. -Environmental Science,Ph.D -Environmental Science law & DIPLOMA AS - P.G.D.E.P.L,CES, DCA,
EX IIM LUCKNOW FELLOW, EX RESEARCH SCIENTIST
IGIDR-MUMBAI 
9912511918
amarnathgiri@nagarjunagroup.com
http://www.nagarjunagroup.com
http://www.nagarjunafertilizers.com 

EHSQ BLOG : http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/?view=magazine
http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2013/10/curriculum-vitae-of-dr-amar-nath-giri.html?q=BIO+DATA
http://dramarnathgiri.blogspot.in/2012/05/nagarjuna-management-services.html

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Taking road safety to international standards Nara Chandrababu Naidu

May 11, 2015, 9:30 am

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Nara Chandrababu Naidu

Taking road safety to international standards

Today, during a review meeting with our Transport Department officials, I was informed that nine people die in every 10 hours in our State. It is upsetting that Andhra Pradesh stands 5th in the total number of road accidents in the country.
I'm told that 78.43% of the accidents happen due to driver's fault. Given these appalling figures, I have asked our transport department to fix particular time slot between 3 am to 6 am as resting time for drivers.

We are planning to have "resting zones or lounges" for drivers and increase the number of "way side" areas on National Highways for trucks drivers.
To test driving skills, I will have a policy that will ask for license renewal every three years. We will also hire expert agencies to lay driving tracks in "Driving Schools." All drivers will undergo a driving test. For those who aren't skilled enough, we will have recognised Driving Schools train drivers.
That apart, we will test the health of the vehicle and regulate them strictly. To track vehicles, we will introduce Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)-based name plates.
We will also have a team analysing where an accident has taken place due to the fault of the driver or the vehicle or due to the road. All roads and national highways in the state will have signs and signals at international standards.
Our government will also have awareness lessons on road safety and signs. I want to implement this on a campaign mode. I strongly believe that we all have the right to live and roads or accidents cannot take away that right from us.

Weather of Kakinada Dated :May 11, 2015

May 11, 2015, 5:32 pm

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Local Weather Report and Forecast For: Kakinada    Dated :May 11, 2015

	Past 24 Hours Weather Data Maximum Temp(oC) 37.8 Departure from Normal(oC) 1 Minimum Temp (oC) 29.0 Departure from Normal(oC) 2 24 Hours Rainfall (mm) NIL Todays Sunset (IST) 18:24 Tommorows Sunrise (IST) 05:31 Moonset (IST) 11:48 Moonrise (IST) ---
Today's Forecast:Sky condition would be generally cloudy. Rain / Thundershowers may occur in parts of city. Maximum & Minimum temperatures would be around 38 and 28 deg. cel. respectively.
Date Temperature ( o C ) Weather Forecast Minimum Maximum 12-May 28.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with possibility of rain or Thunderstorm 13-May 28.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 14-May 28.0 38.0 Partly cloudy sky with Thundery development 15-May 29.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky 16-May 29.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky 17-May 29.0 37.0 Partly cloudy sky

	Actual	Average	Record
Temperature
Mean Temperature	33 °C	-
Max Temperature	37 °C	-	- ()
Min Temperature	29 °C	-	- ()
Cooling Degree Days	27
Growing Degree Days	42 (Base 50)
Moisture
Dew Point	26 °C
Average Humidity	66
Maximum Humidity	86
Minimum Humidity	38
Precipitation
Precipitation	0.0 mm	-	- ()
Sea Level Pressure
Sea Level Pressure	1008.00 hPa
Wind
Wind Speed	2 km/h ()
Max Wind Speed	11 km/h
Max Gust Speed	-
Visibility	7.0 kilometers
Events

T = Trace of Precipitation, MM = Missing Value

Source: Averaged Metar Reports

Daily Weather History Graph

MONTHLY

सूर्य 2000 साल बाद एक बार कोनार्क के सूर्य मन्दिर के अंदर आ जाता है ऐसा 2000 साल में एक बार होता है l सूर्य कोनार्क के सूर्य मन्दिर के अंदर आ गया है l
सूर्य मंदिर कोणार्क के अदभुत् दृष्य......
. ... ...

Earthquakes

May 12, 2015, 8:37 am

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Earthquakes

Seismic Destruction

Photograph by Mosanori Kobayashi

Earthquakes, also called temblors, can be so tremendously destructive, it’s hard to imagine they occur by the thousands every day around the world, usually in the form of small tremors.
Some 80 percent of all the planet's earthquakes occur along the rim of the Pacific Ocean, called the "Ring of Fire" because of the preponderance of volcanic activity there as well. Most earthquakes occur at fault zones, where tectonic plates—giant rock slabs that make up the Earth's upper layer—collide or slide against each other. These impacts are usually gradual and unnoticeable on the surface; however, immense stress can build up between plates. When this stress is released quickly, it sends massive vibrations, called seismic waves, often hundreds of miles through the rock and up to the surface. Other quakes can occur far from faults zones when plates are stretched or squeezed.
Scientists assign a magnitude rating to earthquakes based on the strength and duration of their seismic waves. A quake measuring 3 to 5 is considered minor or light; 5 to 7 is moderate to strong; 7 to 8 is major; and 8 or more is great.
On average, a magnitude 8 quake strikes somewhere every year and some 10,000 people die in earthquakes annually. Collapsing buildings claim by far the majority of lives, but the destruction is often compounded by mud slides, fires, floods, or tsunamis. Smaller temblors that usually occur in the days following a large earthquake can complicate rescue efforts and cause further death and destruction.
Loss of life can be avoided through emergency planning, education, and the construction of buildings that sway rather than break under the stress of an earthquake.

 

DATE/TIME		REGION	MAGNITUDE		DEPTH (in km)	SOURCE	DETAIL
Tuesday May 12 2015, 15:28:21 UTC	22 minutes ago	Central Iran		3.8	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 15:28:10 UTC	22 minutes ago	Syria		3.1	36.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 14:42:13 UTC	68 minutes ago	Sicily, Italy		2.3	234.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 14:39:33 UTC	71 minutes ago	Dodecanese Is.-turkey Border Reg		2.4	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 13:43:56 UTC	2 hours ago	Dodecanese Is.-turkey Border Reg		2.1	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 13:43:17 UTC	2 hours ago	Nepal		4.4	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 13:39:01 UTC	2 hours ago	Nevada		2.4	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 13:24:25 UTC	2 hours ago	Iran-iraq Border Region		3.6	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 13:05:20 UTC	2 hours ago	Central California		2.6	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 12:28:22 UTC	3 hours ago	Nepal		4.3	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 12:13:43 UTC	3 hours ago	France		3.2	1.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:58:09 UTC	3 hours ago	Nepal		4.2	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:55:15 UTC	3 hours ago	Fyr Of Macedonia		2.4	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:53:54 UTC	3 hours ago	Antofagasta, Chile		3.1	126.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:53:15 UTC	3 hours ago	Offshore Washington		2.7	6.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:53:15 UTC	3 hours ago	Offshore Washington		2.7	6.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:46:35 UTC	4 hours ago	Canada		2.5	37.0	Natural Resources Canada Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:46:35 UTC	4 hours ago	Canada		2.5	37.0	Natural Resources Canada Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:45:21 UTC	4 hours ago	Arkansas		2.3	1.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 11:21:29 UTC	4 hours ago	Nepal		4.3	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:52:15 UTC	4 hours ago	Azerbaijan		3.4	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:35:40 UTC	5 hours ago	Nepal		4.5	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:17:27 UTC	5 hours ago	Crete, Greece		3.9	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:15:06 UTC	5 hours ago	Nepal		4.4	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:06:11 UTC	5 hours ago	Crete, Greece		2.9	12.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:03:25 UTC	5 hours ago	Tonga Islands.		5.0	35.0	GeoScience Australia	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 10:03:22 UTC	5 hours ago	Tonga		5.0	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 09:21:26 UTC	6 hours ago	Offshore Coquimbo, Chile		3.5	37.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 09:15:34 UTC	6 hours ago	Hindu Kush Region, Afghanistan		4.7	40.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 09:02:10 UTC	6 hours ago	Nepal		4.5	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:59:39 UTC	6 hours ago	Nepal		4.7	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:54:25 UTC	6 hours ago	Strait Of Gibraltar		2.9	41.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:53:19 UTC	6 hours ago	Greece		2.3	13.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:41:37 UTC	7 hours ago	France		1.7	5.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:30:15 UTC	7 hours ago	Central Turkey		2.0	7.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:21:10 UTC	7 hours ago	Nepal		5.3	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:18:23 UTC	7 hours ago	Western Turkey		2.4	12.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:13:54 UTC	7 hours ago	Nepal		5.2	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:11:08 UTC	7 hours ago	Cyprus Region		2.7	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:07:33 UTC	7 hours ago	Greece		3.0	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 08:06:07 UTC	7 hours ago	Nepal		5.1	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:55:42 UTC	7 hours ago	Island Of Hawaii, Hawaii		2.3	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:48:49 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal		5.0	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:37:02 UTC	8 hours ago	Salta, Argentina		4.5	167.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:36:54 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal.		6.3	15.0	GeoScience Australia	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:36:53 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal		6.2	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:34:24 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal		5.5	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:22:04 UTC	8 hours ago	Kepulauan Babar, Indonesia		5.4	149.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:22:01 UTC	8 hours ago	Banda Sea.		5.6	107.0	GeoScience Australia	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:17:23 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal		5.6	20.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:06:12 UTC	8 hours ago	France		2.6	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:05:20 UTC	8 hours ago	80km east of Kathmandu, Nepal.		7.4	14.0	GeoScience Australia	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 07:05:19 UTC	8 hours ago	Nepal		7.3	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 06:27:06 UTC	9 hours ago	South Of Java, Indonesia		5.1	30.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 06:27:03 UTC	9 hours ago	South of Java, Indonesia.		5.0	3.0	GeoScience Australia	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 06:11:01 UTC	9 hours ago	Hindu Kush Region, Afghanistan		4.6	30.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 05:58:15 UTC	9 hours ago	Azores-cape St. Vincent Ridge		2.4	31.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 05:50:13 UTC	10 hours ago	Offshore Antofagasta, Chile		2.9	38.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 05:05:03 UTC	10 hours ago	Cyprus Region		2.0	7.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 04:51:22 UTC	10 hours ago	Cyprus Region		2.0	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 03:50:38 UTC	12 hours ago	Fiji Region		4.8	30.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 03:49:47 UTC	12 hours ago	Western Turkey		2.3	8.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 03:31:59 UTC	12 hours ago	Greece		2.4	17.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 03:29:30 UTC	12 hours ago	Crete, Greece		2.8	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 03:28:16 UTC	12 hours ago	Canada		1.9	37.0	Natural Resources Canada Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:55:07 UTC	12 hours ago	Antofagasta, Chile		2.7	89.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:43:32 UTC	13 hours ago	Near The Coast Of Western Turkey		2.4	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:35:52 UTC	13 hours ago	Eastern Turkey		2.0	16.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:31:24 UTC	13 hours ago	Hokkaido, Japan Region		4.6	70.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:16:51 UTC	13 hours ago	Greece		2.1	13.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:02:49 UTC	13 hours ago	Northern Italy		3.5	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 02:02:19 UTC	13 hours ago	Western Turkey		2.3	15.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:54:45 UTC	13 hours ago	Antofagasta, Chile		3.0	116.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:52:19 UTC	13 hours ago	Island Of Hawaii, Hawaii		2.4	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:40:41 UTC	14 hours ago	Island Of Hawaii, Hawaii		3.1	3.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:35:24 UTC	14 hours ago	Island Of Hawaii, Hawaii		2.3	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:15:44 UTC	14 hours ago	Tarapaca, Chile		2.9	52.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 01:07:20 UTC	14 hours ago	Virgin Islands region		1.7	9.0	USGS Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 00:49:38 UTC	15 hours ago	Sicily, Italy		2.0	9.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Tuesday May 12 2015, 00:36:11 UTC	15 hours ago	Region Metropolitana, Chile		4.0	106.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:52:58 UTC	15 hours ago	Cyprus Region		2.0	22.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:43:15 UTC	16 hours ago	Taiwan		4.6	21.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:40:52 UTC	16 hours ago	Central Turkey		4.0	19.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:25:43 UTC	16 hours ago	Virgin Islands Region		2.7	26.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:25:43 UTC	16 hours ago	Virgin Islands region		2.7	26.0	USGS Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:20:04 UTC	16 hours ago	Offshore Antofagasta, Chile		2.5	41.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:09:08 UTC	16 hours ago	Virgin Islands Region		2.6	44.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 23:09:08 UTC	16 hours ago	Virgin Islands region		2.6	44.0	USGS Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 22:43:11 UTC	17 hours ago	Hindu Kush Region, Afghanistan		4.1	207.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 22:06:25 UTC	17 hours ago	Antofagasta, Chile		2.9	115.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 21:35:16 UTC	18 hours ago	Island Of Hawaii, Hawaii		2.4	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 21:35:02 UTC	18 hours ago	Fiji Region		4.5	551.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 21:08:54 UTC	18 hours ago	Atacama, Chile		3.8	51.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 21:02:04 UTC	18 hours ago	Canada		1.5	32.0	Natural Resources Canada Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 21:02:04 UTC	18 hours ago	Canada		1.5	33.0	Natural Resources Canada Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 20:27:57 UTC	19 hours ago	Germany		2.6	3.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 20:23:00 UTC	19 hours ago	Nepal		4.1	10.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 20:16:19 UTC	19 hours ago	Southern California		2.4	9.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 19:06:44 UTC	20 hours ago	Crete, Greece		3.1	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed	Detail
Monday May 11 2015, 18:41:35 UTC	21 hours ago	Southwestern Siberia, Russia		3.6	2.0	CSEM-EMSC Feed

Estimated Deaths from Earthquakes, 2014

The following table gives the number of people who died in major earthquakes in 2014. The magnitude of each earthquake is also shown. Magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Date	Region	Magnitude	Number killed
April 1	Iquique, Chile	8.2	7
Oct. 14	Nicaragua	7.3	1
April 11	Papua New Guinea	7.1	1
Aug. 3	Ludian County, China	6.1	617

Estimated Deaths from Earthquakes, 2013

The following table gives the number of people who died in major earthquakes in 2013. The magnitude of each earthquake is also shown. Magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Date	Region	Magnitude	Number killed
Feb. 6	Santa Cruz Islands	8.0	18
April 9	Bushehr Province, Iran	6.3	37
April 16	Baluchestan Province, Iran	7.7	35
April 20	Lushan County, China	6.6	193
April 24	Mehtar Lam, Afghanistan	5.6	18
July 2	Aceh, Indonesia	6.1	35
July 22	Gansu, China	5.9	95
Sept. 24	Balochistan, Pakistan	7.7	825
Sept. 28	Balochistan, Pakistan	6.8	22
Oct. 15	Bohol Island, Philippines	7.2	222

 

Estimated Deaths from Earthquakes, 2012

The following table gives the number of people who died in major earthquakes in 2012. The magnitude of each earthquake is also shown. Magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Date	Region	Magnitude	Number killed
Feb. 6	Visayas, Philippines	6.7	113
April 11	Near Coast of Aceh Province, Indonesia	8.6	10
May 20	Emilia-Romagna, Italy	6.1	27
June 11	Baghlan province, Afghanistan	5.7	75
Aug. 11	East Azerbaijan Province, Iran	6.4	306
Sept. 7	Yunnan Province, China	5.6	81
Nov. 7	Mexico and Guatemala	7.4	139
Nov. 11	Shwebo, Myanmar	6.8	38

 

Estimated Deaths from Earthquakes, 2011

The following table gives the number of people who died in major earthquakes in 2011. The magnitude of each earthquake is also shown. Magnitudes listed are moment magnitudes, the newest, most uniformly applicable magnitude scale.

Date	Region	Magnitude	Number killed
Feb. 21	South Island of New Zealand	6.1	181
March 31	Near East Coast of Honshu, Japan	9.0	20,896
March 24	Myanmar	6.19	74
Sept. 8	Sikkim, India	6.9	111
Oct. 23	Eastern Turkey	7.1	604

 1990–1999

Magnitude	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999
8.0–9.9	0	0	0	1	2	3	1	0	2	0
7.0–7.9	12	11	23	15	13	22	21	20	14	23
6.0–6.9	115	105	104	141	161	185	160	125	113	123
5.0–5.9	1,635	1,469	1,541	1,449	1,542	1,327	1,223	1,118	979	1,106
4.0–4.9	4,493	4,372	5,196	5,034	4,544	8,140	8,794	7,938	7,303	7,042
3.0–3.9	2,457	2,952	4,643	4,263	5,000	5,002	4,869	4,467	5,945	5,521
2.0–2.9	2,364	2,927	3,068	5,390	5,369	3,838	2,388	2,397	4,091	4,201
1.0–1.9	474	801	887	1,177	779	645	295	388	805	715
0.1–0.9	0	1	2	9	17	19	1	4	10	5
No magnitude	5,062	3,878	4,084	3,997	1,944	1,826	2,186	3,415	2,426	2,096
Total	16,612	16,516	19,548	21,476	19,371	21,007	19,938	19,872	21,688	20,832
Estimated deaths	51,916	2,326	3,814	10,036	1,038	7,949	419	2,907	8,928	22,711

2000–2010

Magnitude	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010
8.0–9.9	1	1	0	1	2	1	1	4	0	1	1
7.0–7.9	14	15	13	14	14	10	10	14	12	16	22
6.0–6.9	158	126	130	140	141	140	142	172	166	144	150
5.0–5.9	1,345	1,243	1,218	1,203	1,515	1,693	1,712	1,885	1,537	1,896	1,983
4.0–4.9	8,045	8,084	8,584	8,462	10,888	13,917	12,838	12,275	11,943	6,805	10,383
3.0–3.9	4,784	6,151	7,005	7,624	7,932	9,191	9,990	9,876	11,138	2,905	4,321
2.0–2.9	3,758	4,162	6,419	7,727	6,316	4,636	4,027	3,593	3,542	3,014	4,623
1.0–1.9	1,026	944	1,137	2,506	1,344	26	18	43	16	26	39
0.1–0.9	5	1	10	134	103	0	2	2	0	1	0
No magnitude	No magnitude	3,120	2,938	2,937	3,608	2,939	864	828	1,829	17	24
Total	22,256	23,534	27,454	31,419	31,194	30,478	29,568	29,671	30,183	14,825	21,546
Estimated deaths	231	21,357	1,685	33,819	284,010	82,364	6,605	712	88,011	1,790	320,129