Applying New Technology to Visual Weld Inspection

June 19, 2013, 9:55 pm

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Applying New Technology to Visual Weld Inspection By Etienne Berthiaume and Jeffrey Noruk

Hand-held scanners prove useful for visually inspecting welds

Nondestructive examination (NDE) includes a variety of inspection methods. For many types of welds, integrity is verified by visual inspection. In fact, visual inspection is the NDE method used for more than 95% of welds made each day. It is easy to apply, quick, relatively inexpensive and, historically, requires no special equipment. Tools of the trade have included a flashlight, magnifying glass, scales and special gauges.ondestructive examination (NDE) includes a variety of inspection methods. For many types of welds, integrity is verified by visual inspection. In fact, visual inspection is the NDE method used for more than 95% of welds made each day. It is easy to apply, quick, relatively inexpensive and, historically, requires no special equipment. Tools of the trade have included a flashlight, magnifying glass, scales and special gauges.

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Fig. 1 -- A hand-hheld joint and weld scanner with control box.

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Visual inspection involves more than just looking at a finished weld and declaring whether it is good or bad. The process begins prior to welding by examining joint preparation, alignment and clearances. During welding, the requirements of the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) must be followed and all requirements must be met. Root pass quality and joint fill are two characteristics that need to be verified. After welding, the completed weld must be measured and compared to the applicable quality standard. Type, location and size of any defects must be noted. Finally, visual inspection is required to verify that any weld defects are repaired properly. One More Tool of the Trade

Visual inspection methods and tools have not changed much over the last 50 years. However, hand-held weld scanners have been added to the variety of tools available for visual inspection ‹ Fig. 1. By aiming an activated scanner at a joint preparation or finished weld, an operator can obtain measurements and validation of geometry against preset thresholds. Such devices can assist in the time-consuming, error-prone and repetitive task of manually inspecting welds with conventional gauges.
Hand-held scanners supply large amounts of data via visual displays, computer-saved records and strip chart printouts. Typical features measured on a prepared joint include root opening, included angle, material thickness and root face size ‹ Fig. 2. For the finished weld, features such as leg length, weld length, skips, toe angle, concavity/convexity and undercut can be directly measured. In addition, for both preweld joints and finished welds, information about actual joint volume to be filled, throat size (theoretical), off-joint amount and percent over- welding can be calculated.
Pros and Cons
Hand-held scanners facilitate the repeatability of the visual inspection process by making actual measurements less subjective, i.e., less sensitive to different inspectors, lighting conditions and incorrect interpretation of welding codes when correct code thresholds are entered into the computer prior to inspection.

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Fig. 2 -- Scanner display on a Palm IIIc.

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A permanent record is produced similar to that available with radiographic or ultrasonic testing. Inspection data can be saved to a computer file and/or printed out on a strip chart that represents the length of the weld inspected. This permanent record can be used to develop trending information (i.e., what welds are experiencing the most problems, which welder is producing the most defects and what is the parts per million defect rate). A permanent record can also provide exact defect location to help expedite repairs. This will enable users to meet standards like ISO 9000, ASME and AWS, which require documentation be kept on file for a number of years.nondestructive examination (NDE) includes a variety of inspection methods. For many types of welds, integrity is verified by visual inspection. In fact, visual inspection is the NDE method used for more than 95% of welds made each day. It is easy to apply, quick, relatively inexpensive and, historically, requires no special equipment. Tools of the trade have included a flashlight, magnifying glass, scales and special gauges. Visual inspection involves more than just looking at a finished weld and declaring whether it is good or bad. The process begins prior to welding by examining joint preparation, alignment and clearances. During welding, the requirements of the Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) must be followed and all requirements must be met. Root pass quality and joint fill are two characteristics that need to be verified. After welding, the completed weld must be measured and compared to the applicable quality standard. Type, location and size of any defects must be noted. Finally, visual inspection is required to verify that any weld defects are repaired properly.
One More Tool of the Trade
Visual inspection methods and tools have not changed much over the last 50 years. However, hand-held weld scanners have been added to the variety of tools available for visual inspection ‹ Fig. 1. By aiming an activated scanner at a joint preparation or finished weld, an operator can obtain measurements and validation of geometry against preset thresholds. Such devices can assist in the time-consuming, error-prone and repetitive task of manually inspecting welds with conventional gauges.
Hand-held scanners supply large amounts of data via visual displays, computer-saved records and strip chart printouts. Typical features measured on a prepared joint include root opening, included angle, material thickness and root face size ‹ Fig. 2. For the finished weld, features such as leg length, weld length, skips, toe angle, concavity/convexity and undercut can be directly measured. In addition, for both preweld joints and finished welds, information about actual joint volume to be filled, throat size (theoretical), off-joint amount and percent over- welding can be calculated.
Pros and Cons
Hand-held scanners facilitate the repeatability of the visual inspection process by making actual measurements less subjective, i.e., less sensitive to different inspectors, lighting conditions and incorrect interpretation of welding codes when correct code thresholds are entered into the computer prior to inspection.
A permanent record is produced similar to that available with radiographic or ultrasonic testing. Inspection data can be saved to a computer file and/or printed out on a strip chart that represents the length of the weld inspected. This permanent record can be used to develop trending information (i.e., what welds are experiencing the most problems, which welder is producing the most defects and what is the parts per million defect rate). A permanent record can also provide exact defect location to help expedite repairs. This will enable users to meet standards like ISO 9000, ASME and AWS, which require documentation be kept on file for a number of years.
The preweld and interpass inspection can be used to help ensure the procedure is being followed correctly. It can also assist the welder in changing the parameters to compensate for unanticipated variation. This could be helpful in mechanized and automated operations where the preset values of current and travel speed to get the proper fill rate to maintain weld bead sequence can be changed.
Information gathered from such devices can help reduce overwelding, which can save money and reduce distortion. Studies have found that a typical manual welder who produces welds just 1 mm over size can cost a company more than $10,000 per year. Scanners can be used to get the joint right before welding and also to provide feedback about how much overwelding is occurring. Of course, no device is right for everyone. Hand-held weld scanners may not fit into every area to be inspected. The cost is more than typical gauges, which may be limiting for small companies or ones that do not do much welding. Prices may, however, go down as computer and vision technology improves.
The preweld and interpass inspection can be used to help ensure the procedure is being followed correctly. It can also assist the welder in changing the parameters to compensate for unanticipated variation. This could be helpful in mechanized and automated operations where the preset values of current and travel speed to get the proper fill rate to maintain weld bead sequence can be changed. Information gathered from such devices can help reduce over welding, which can save money and reduce distortion. Studies have found that a typical manual welder who produces welds just 1 mm over size can cost a company more than $10,000 per year. Scanners can be used to get the joint right before welding and also to provide feedback about how much over-welding is occurring. Of course, no device is right for everyone. Hand-held weld scanners may not fit into every area to be inspected. The cost is more than typical gauges, which may be limiting for small companies or ones that do not do much welding. Prices may, however, go down as computer and vision technology improves.

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NEEM COATED UREA: A STEP IN RIGHT DIRECTION. MORE NEEDS TO BE DONE:

June 19, 2013, 11:30 pm

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NEEM COATED UREA: A STEP IN RIGHT DIRECTION. MORE NEEDS TO BE DONE: By: Dr. B. N. Vyas - GM, Research & Technical Development, Godrej Agrovet Ltd., Pirojshanagar, Eastern Express Highway, Vikhroli, Mumbai – 400 079 India http://www.neemfoundation.org/neem-articles/neem-updates/editorial-notes/neem-coated-urea-a-step-in-right-direction/153-editorial-notes.html With limited scope for horizontal expansion in the net cultivable area due to demands of an ever-increasing population, it is essential that highly efficient management practices and modern scientific techniques are adopted to increase agricultural production in India. Efficient water and nutrient management are the key elements of intensive agriculture. At the current use levels of primary nutrients (N, P, K) of 20 million tons, almost two thirds of this quantity is accounted for, by nitrogen alone.  Globally, nitrogenous fertilizers are produced in 72 countries, the total production being 94 million tons in 2002–03 as compared to nearly 50 million tons in 1970.  Forecasts suggest that the consumption of nitrogenous fertilizers is likely to rise to 134 million tons in the next decade. It is worthwhile to note that urea constitutes nearly 80% of the total straight nitrogenous fertilizer consumption in India. In quantity terms nearly more than 20 million tons of urea is used in India currently, and it is safe to presume that urea would continue to maintain its predominant position among nitrogenous fertilizers.  On the other hand, globally, due to use of other nitrogenous fertilizers, namely, liquid ammonia, ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate, the contribution of urea usage is less than half of the total nitrogenous fertilizers. Urea Transformations: Under the environmental conditions encountered in most parts of India, urea after application to soils hydrolyses fairly rapidly to ammonium carbonate, over a maximum period of about a week. The ammoniacal form of nitrogen is subsequently converted to nitrite and then to nitrate by the action of nitrifying bacteria viz. Nitrosomonas sps. and Nitrobacter sps., respectively. The processes of hydrolysis and nitrification of urea fertilizer are to a large extent completed in about 15–20 days under most agroclimatic conditions. In this context, it should be noted that the duration of most cultivated crops extends beyond 90–100 days, and therefore, nitrates formed as a result of the relatively rapid hydrolysis and nitrification of urea being highly soluble, and in excess of the limited quantities required by the crops at their early stages of growth are liable to be leached down the soil profile, beyond the active root zone of crops.  Moreover, under waterlogged conditions nitrates are reduced to elemental nitrogen and nitrous oxide by the action of denitrifying bacteria to meet their oxygen demand.  This leads to the development of nitrogen deficiency and poor crop yields.  In view of this it is most important that fertilizer use efficiency needs to be improved to make fertilizer use economically viable and more attractive. Scientists around the world are concentrating their efforts on regulating the nitrogen supply to crops by reducing the rate of either hydrolysis or nitrification or both, so as to ensure continuous and optimal supply of nitrogen to match the requirements of crops at different stages of growth. A considerable volume of data is available on the potential of the constituents of neem (Azadirachta indica) seeds known as triterpenes as effective nitrification inhibitors. In fact the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in its publication ‘Technology for Rice Production’ for different states has recommended the use of neem cake blended or coated urea. In spite of the encouraging results obtained with the use of urea coated with neem cake, this practice has not attracted the attention of farmers on a large scale because the process of coating urea with neem cake is cumbersome and because neem cake is not readily available at the farm level. Industrial Developments: During late eighties and early nineties, some industries including M/s. Godrej Agrovet Ltd. developed ready to use neem extracts containing neem triterpenes which could be mixed with urea straight away to obtain the neem coated urea (NCU), thus eliminating the use of neem cake and coal tar and other additives. Neem coated urea produced using concentrated extracts were extensively evaluated under large field trials and were found to show great yield improvements. At this stage it was envisaged that neem coated urea could be produced by urea manufacturers, however, urea being controlled under Essential Commodity Act and Fertilizer Control Order, a special permission by concerned Ministry was required to produce and market fortified urea (neem coated urea) fertilizer. Since this exercise was going to take quite sometime, as an interim arrangement, manufacturers started marketing neem based urea coating agents in the market and farmers were advised to mix urea coating agent with urea before application. Currently, more than 20 entrepreneurs sell such neem based urea coating products in the market. Industry Representation: Since production of neem coated urea at urea manufacturing location was the ultimate solution, the industry continued its efforts with Government of India to seek their approval for the endeavor.  At this stage Neem Foundation also joined the industry to serve the novel cause.  In fact a delegation under the leadership of Dr. R. C. Saxena, Chairman - Neem Foundation, met Mr. Suresh Prabhu, the then Minister of Fertilizers and Chemicals, Government of India with the following demands. (i)    Inclusion of neem coated urea as accepted category of fertilizers in Schedule I of the Fertilizer Control Order. (ii)    Subsidy component available for uncoated urea should also be available for neem coated urea. (iii)    Grant of small premium in price of neem coated urea vis-à-vis uncoated urea in order to take care of the cost of coating agent and technology for coating urea with neem extracts. (iv)    Directing fertilizer factories to coat at least 10% of their production with neem. It is heartening to mention here that due to continuous efforts and perseverance of the Industry and Neem Foundation, Government of India finally on May 12, 2003, issued a notification indicating FCO Amendments to include specifications of neem coated urea to be produced by M/s. National Fertilizers Ltd. (NFL). However, it was clarified that Government of India has decided to permit all the manufacturers who wish to manufacture neem coated urea at their factories. It may be pointed out here that only one out of the four demands listed above have been met. NFL, producer of neem coated urea are absorbing additional costs in their system and do not wish to seek additional selling price for their neem coated urea. It would not be out of place to mention here that NFL produces neem coated urea by using very low quantity of neem oil emulsion, which is primarily aimed at prevention of caking and reduction in losses during storage.  Increase in yield upto 4-5% as claimed by producers (NFL) is considered incidental, whereas on the other hand the product developed by the industry is aimed at improvement in agronomic efficiency as primary objective and reduction in caking and losses during storage being additional advantage. As it has been established for several years, higher agronomic efficiency is attributed to presence of neem triterpenes for which products need to be specifically formulated. A efficacious and stable Neem coating product would certainly require price support from Government of India.  Therefore, it is emphasized here that by granting permission to manufacture NCU, the authorities in India have taken one step in right direction. However much more needs to be done, if we have to really reap the benefit of this wonderful technological innovation. In summary, the advantages of the neem coated urea can be enumerated as follows: 1.    Saving of 10% of the losses of urea would amount to 2 million tons of urea or a reduction in subsidy component to the tune of Rs. 1,200 crores per annum (considering total subsidy on urea to be Rs. 12,000 crores per annum). 2.    Proportional saving in the consumption of naphtha or natural gas. 3.    Increased crop yields due to better nitrogen utilization. 4.    Reduction in environmental pollution of ground water due to leaching of nitrates and gaseous emissions.    5.    Opportunity for entrepreneurs to commercialize local Neem Resources and Development of Small Scale Industries in rural areas

The Phenomena of Moisture in Transformer Oil

June 20, 2013, 11:14 am

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The Phenomena of Moisture in Transformer Oil

Water in oil appears as an unwanted substance, it is generally accepted that water in microscopic amounts - not gallons- is the cause of more electrical breakdowns than any other impurity.  Moisture constitutes a hazard not only to the insulating qualities of the oil but also to the insulations that are immersed in the oil.

Water may be introduced to the oil by leaking gaskets, poor handling techniques or from the product of natural insulating paper and oil degradation.  As the paper degrades, it produces Carbon Dioxide and Water and as the insulating oil ages, water, acids, sludge and other polar compounds are formed.  So its presence is inevitable during the normal service life of a transformer.

Water is a polar liquid having a high permittivity or dielectric constant it is therefore attracted to areas of strong electric fields.  This sees the internal moisture distributed not uniformly, but in fact potentially concentrating in the most dangerous parts of the system.

It is important to note that water is in a continuous state of movement between the oil and paper insulating system, caused by internal temperature variations due to load and ambient conditions.

Water may be present in four possible forms, they are:

            •  Free water – That is water that has settled out of the oil in a separate layer.  It is this water which is indicated by a low dielectric breakdown voltage.

            •  Emulsified water – Or water that is suspended and has not yet settled out into free water (indicated by “caramel” coloured oil).

Nb: A high Power Factor value indicates the possible presence of this suspended water trapped in oil decay products.

            •  Water in solution – or dissolved in the oil.

            •  Chemically bound water – Water which is chemically attached to the insulating paper and which is released when oxidized.

The destructive effects of water include:

            •  Expansion of the paper insulation, altering the mechanical pressure of the transformer clamping system.

            •  Loss of insulating ability (Dielectric Breakdown Voltage)

            •  Accelerating paper aging ie triggering decomposition of the fibres in the paper

            •  Increased corrosion of the core and tank

            •  Progressive consumption of oil additives

The most dangerous and destructive of these effects is the loss of the oils insulating ability.  This may occur from the following events:

            •  During periods of high load and at high ambient temperatures, dielectric breakdowns can result from the reduced oil strength with high absolute amounts of water.

            •  With sudden high loads, water can boil off conductor surfaces and the vapour bubbles can cause dielectric failures as they rise to the top.

            •  During the cool-down period after high load, the relative saturation of oil will increase.  At its extreme at 100% relative saturation, water will precipitate out and greatly reduce the dielectric strength of the oil.

If oil is oxidized to any extent, any water coming into the transformer will partially be absorbed into the oil decay products (It is this fact which causes old or highly oxidised oil to dissolve more water than new oil).  As the decay products build up in the oil, the surface tension of the water or the interfacial tension between the oil and the water is lowered dramatically.  This heavier decay molecule will then recirculate throughout the entire transformer and will find its way into the paper insulation, or into areas of high electrical intensity thus reducing the insulation resistance. The water saturated oil decay molecule has a preference for the coolest part of the transformer (bottom and fins, leading to corrosion) and areas of highest electrical stress (leading to arcing).

It has been proven that insulating paper with 2% moisture content ages three times faster than one with 1% moisture and thirty times faster with 3% moisture.

It is thus easy to see the importance of maintaining low moisture levels within a transformer to ensure a long and trouble free service life.

Ageing transformers, from Liability to Reliability

June 20, 2013, 11:18 am

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Ageing transformers, from Liability to Reliability

By

Charles O’Connor

CEO – Enviro Power Services limited.

Abstract.

Large power transformers are critical components in the grid network.

Utilities and other transformer operators world wide, are confronted with the problem of an ageing transformer population, increasing demand and an ever-increasing incidence of failure.

As transformers age the risk of failure increases reaching exponential proportions towards the end of the transformers life. The high capital cost of replacement and the long lead times associated with manufacture mean that the risk to supply continuity is high.

Current maintenance practices and limitations with regard to the adoption and use of standards, means that most transformer failures are unexpected. The reactive nature of transformer maintenance incurs severe cost penalties for operators and a loss of reputational standing. Unexpected failure may cause injury or death, environmental hazards and loss of revenue and good will.

The assessment of a transformers condition coupled with an appropriate programme of remedial processing and ongoing condition monitoring with effective moisture management can reduce the risk of failure and maximize the useful, reliable operational of transformers.

Introduction.

In order to build an effective and realistic maintenance programme it is necessary to understand the current practices. Most transformer operators rely upon a combination of visual inspection, Electrical testing and oil sample analysis to assess the state of health of their transformers and whether any remedial actions are required.  IEEE C57 standards recommend that transformers rated above 500kVA be electrically tested annually. In practice, it is more common to find these transformers tested at intervals between 3 to 5 years, and often this stretching to 8year intervals and in some cases these transformers are not tested at all.

The visual inspections normally done at yearly intervals are seldom done due to the decrease in manpower and budgetary restrictions.

This leaves the oil sample testing. This is typically done on an annual basis and it is upon this that we will focus as the primary source of information about the health of the transformer.

What do we seek to achieve?

The familiar “bathtub curve” illustrates the typical life cycle of most components.

Our goal is to maximize the “useful operational life” portion of the curve.

Most analyses tend to identify conditions in a transformer at the onset of the “old age” and consequently closer to the end of the transformer life. It is hoped that this can assist in identifying problems so as to avoid the unplanned outages associated with catastrophic transformer failure but it is often not the case. It is also not as useful as identifying the problems earlier so as to be able to take preventative actions.

It was recognized by IEEE that more than 80% of all transformer failures world wide, occur due the failure of the solid insulation. In particular the Kraft paper insulation in the windings. Of all the component parts in a transformer it is the Kraft paper insulation (cellulose) that is the most vulnerable. Once damaged, it cannot be repaired and the life of the transformer will be forever shortened.

Paper life = Transformer life.

It follows then that anything we can do to prevent or mitigate damage to the paper insulation will enhance the life of the transformer.

So what limits the life of the paper insulation?

Modern insulation paper starts life with a tensile strength of around 17,500psi (120MPa). As it ages is loses its mechanical strength due to the effects of heat, moisture and contamination. The strength of the paper is referred to as the degree of polymerization, of DP. These properties are used to evaluate the end of reliable life of paper insulation.  It is generally suggested that DP values of 150-250 represent the lower limits for end-of-life criteria for paper insulation; for values below 150, the paper is without mechanical strength. 

Analysis of paper insulation for its DP value requires removal of a few strips of paper from suspect sites.  This procedure can conveniently be carried out during transformer repairs.  The results of these tests will be a deciding factor in rebuilding or scrapping a transformer. 

Furaldehyde Analysis

Direct measurement of these properties is not practical for in-service transformers.  However, it has been shown that the amount of 2-furaldehyde in oil (usually the most prominent component of paper decomposition) is directly related to the DP of the paper inside the transformer. 

Paper in a transformer does not age uniformly and variations are expected with temperature, moisture distribution, oxygen levels and other operating conditions.  The levels of 2-furaldehyde in oil relate to the average deterioration of the insulating paper.  Consequently, the extent of paper deterioration resulting from a "hot spot" will be greater than indicated by levels of 2-furaldehyde in the oil.

The progression towards insulation failure.

This diagram shows how the dissolved moisture and heat act upon the paper insulation.

In work done in the 70s by F.M/Clark of General Electric in the US, he showed by experimentation in the laboratory a distinct relationship between the acid number fo the oil and the tensile strength of the paper insulation when an oil/paper sample was aged in the laboratory.  SD Myers replicated these experiments in the 80s with similar results.

The effect of the oil acid level being at 0.15mgKOH/g is clear and represents a 40% loss of tensile strength.

The following two photomicrographs were taken of “new oil” on the left and “aged oil” on the right, using a scanning electron microscope and at 750 x magnification.

The oxidation decay products found in transformer oil will continue to attack the paper insulation as longs at they remain in contact with the paper.

In order to minimize the damage to the paper insulation we need to:-

1. Identify the indicators contained in the oil analysis that indicate deterioration.
2. Redefine the levels at which we need to take action when these are observed in analysis results.
3. Take appropriate remedial action in a timely manner.

The gaps in current analytical practice.

Current analytical practice relays upon standards such as IEC60422 – 2005 for guidance on what to test for and at what levels these should be classified as problematic.

The biggest problem in this is that the standards are designed in terms of analyzing the oil for its characteristics as a dielectric medium with little attention to the effects on the paper insulation.

It is for this reason that it is necessary to look at the analysis and to use a more appropriate form of classification of the oil characteristics so as to be able to take the appropriate and timely action.

There are no standards in existence that define this for us but there has been much work done by both SD Myers and DOBLE in this area and a system of classification that allows us to identify the conditions and to be able to plan the remedial actions can be drawn form this and from practical experience.

When to act?

Waiting until known harmful conditions reach “limits” is both damaging and dangerous.

For this reason and with the maximization of the paper insulation in mind, the following grading system may be adopted.

 ACceptable, QUestionable and UNacceptable, e.g. AC, QU, UN.

Based upon the known standards, accepted norms and experience.

Once adopted, the characteristics defined in this manner gives us; a) the ability to recognize a damaging condition developing and b) the time to effectively plan appropriate remedial action.

ACceptable = within the safe operating range and requires only continued monitoring.

QUestionable = Parameter is now showing signs of deterioration and remedial action should be planned

UNacceptable = Parameter is now causing damage to insulation system and urgent attention is required.

The guides given in the following tables are based upon classification of the transformers by Voltage in accordance with IEC 60422 of 2005.

For the purposes of monitoring oil condition the key characteristics are:-

Moisture content.

Not just the amount of moisture contained in the oil and expressed in ppm but the more importantly:-

• The saturation level of the insulating fluid.
• The amount of moisture trapped in the paper insulation (expressed as the percentage Moisture by dry weight or %M/dw)

Saturation level of the insulating fluid.

Moisture is not very soluble in new, clean transformer oil. The solubility of water in oil is higher at higher temperatures. Comparing how much moisture is dissolved in the oil to how much moisture the oil can hold is what is known as the relative saturation of the oil. For example, new, clean oil at 40 Deg C will hold little more than 120ppm of moisture in solution.If the actual moisture content at 40 Deg C is 12ppm then the relative saturation will be 10%. If the moisture in the oil is higher than the desired relative saturation and the transformer should cool significantly, some of the dissolved moisture can come out of solution as droplets of free water. These could cause immediate dielectric failure if they came into contact with an energised conductor.

% Saturation guide.

Voltage class	AC	QU	UN
<72.5 kV	<15%	15 – 20%	>20%
72.5 – 170kV	<8%	8 – 12%	>12%
>170kV	<5%	5 – 7%	>7%

Moisture by Dry Weight (M/dw)

Moisture in the paper insulation is of concern primarily because it causes the insulation to age prematurely, shortening the useful life of the transformer. At high enough levels of moisture in the paper flashover can occur at temperatures encountered in the normal operation of the unit. It is more useful to grade %M/dw results as in the table below than simply as AC, QU and UN.

The upper end of the “A” category (1.25%) represents the maximum %M/dw where accelerated ageing of the insulating paper has not yet begun. As the %M/dw increases from this point, it becomes progressively more difficult (and thus more time consuming and costly) to address.

Voltage class	A	B	C	D	E
<72.5 kV	0 - 1.25%	1.25–2.00%	2.01–2.5%	2.51-4.0%	> 4%
72.5 – 170kV	0 – 0.85%	0.86 – 1.35%	1.36 – 1.70%	1.71 – 2.65%	>2.65%
>170kV	0 -0.55%	0.56 – 0.85%	0.86 – 1.05%	1.06 – 1.70%	>1,70%

% Moisture by Dry weight guide (M/dw)

A – The highest level of moisture before accelerated ageing begins

D – The highest level of moisture where cost effective removal is possible.

Neutralisation Number (acidity).

The level of acidity is an indication of the oxidation level of the transformer oil and is normally determined by means of adding an Alkali (Potassium Hydroxide, KOH) to a sample of the oil so as to “neutralise” the acid content (hence the term Neutralisation Number). As the oxidation level of the oil increases polar compounds and particularly organic acids form in the oil. These react with the other materials in the transformer and ultimately form sludge, which deposits on the surface of the paper insulation preventing the proper cooling of the windings and accelerating the decay of the paper insulation. These acids also cause corrosion within the transformer.

Interfacial Tension (IFT)

The IFT of the oil is a very good early warning indicator of the build up of polar compounds in the transformer oil. These polar compounds (particularly the acids) are the precursors to sludge as described in the previous paragraph. The IFT is a very good indicator of sludge conditions.

Neutralisation number (Acidity) and Interfacial tension (IFT) guide

	AC	QU	UN
Acidity mgKOH/g	<0.05	0.05 – 0.10	>0.10
IFT mN/m	>30	32 – 22	<22

Dielectric Dissipation Factor – DDF (Liquid power factor or Tan d ).

DDF is an outstanding tool for evaluating in-service transformer oil. The test is valuable for acceptance testing of new oil from a supplier, and for evaluating conditions in newly installed equipment. For in-service oil, there are several adverse conditions that show up as changes in the liquid power factor results.

New, clean, and dry transformer oil starts out with a very low liquid power factor, typically <0.003% at 90 Deg C.

As the oil ages or becomes contaminated, the liquid power factor increases. Liquid power factor is usually run in the laboratory at two temperatures, 25 Deg C and 90 Deg C each temperature provides unique direction in what is happening with the fluid. If an abnormal value for liquid power factor is obtained during testing, the respective trends of these two values over the past history may be used to help diagnose the conditions that may be causing the abnormal values.

The concept behind the test is quite straight forward. When an insulating liquid such as transformer oil is subjected to an alternating current field, the oil experiences dielectric losses. These losses cause two effects. The resulting current is deflected slightly out of phase with the AC field that has been applied, and the energy of the losses is dissipated as heat. Liquid power factor (dielectric dissipation factor, or a closely related measurement Liquid Power Factor, which is similarly interpreted) is calculated from direct measurement of these dielectric losses, the lower these losses, the better the oil condition.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor is the tangent of the loss angle while Liquid power factor is calculated as the sine of the same loss angle – the amount of current deflection due to dielectric loss. Some test standards refer to the dissipation factor as tan δ because the loss angle is designated as δ in the vector diagram. Values may be expressed as either a decimal number or as a percentage, such as 0.001 or 0.10%. Typically, in the management of electrical equipment and insulating oils where these dielectric losses are very low, we use values for direct measurement of the DDF.

Note that the calculated values for liquid power factor and for dissipation do not differ by very much until you get into the larger decimal values for each. At a calculated liquid power factor (four significant figures) of 10.00%, the dissipation factor would be 10.05%.

Contamination of the oil by moisture or by other contaminants will increase the liquid power factor. The aging and oxidation of the oil will also elevate liquid power factor values. Therefore, this is an extremely useful test because almost everything “bad” that can happen to the insulating oil will cause the liquid power factor to increase. Running the test at two temperatures allows for some further diagnostics concerning the cause(s) of the abnormal power factor.

	AC	QU	UN
@ 90 Deg C	< 0.02 <(2%)	0.02 – 0.05 (2% - 5%)	>0.05 >(5%)

Oil Quality Index Number

Dividing the IFT (Interfacial Tension) by the Neutralisation Number (NN or Acidity) provides a numerical value that is an excellent means of evaluating oil condition. This number is known as the Oil Quality Index Number OQIN. A new oil would have a OQIN of 1500.

TRANSFORMER OIL CLASSIFICATIONS

GOOD OILS NN – 0.00 – 0.1 mgKOH/gm IFT -  30 – 45 mN/m Colour – Pale yellow OQIN – 300 - 1500

Proposition “A” oils NN – 0.05 – 0.10 mgKOH/gm IFT -  27.1 – 29.9 mN/m Colour – yellow OQIN – 271 - 600

Marginal oils NN – 0.11 – 0.15 mgKOH/gm IFT -  24 - 27 mN/m Colour – Bright yellow OQIN – 160 - 318

Bad oils NN – 0.16 – 0.4 mgKOH/gm IFT -  18 – 23.9 mN/m Colour – Amber OQIN – 45 - 159

Very bad oils NN – 0.41 – 0.65 mgKOH/gm IFT -  14 – 17.9 mN/m Colour – Brown OQIN – 22 - 44

What remedial action is appropriate?

Depending upon what conditions are identified by the analysis, the level of contamination and the condition of the paper insulation there are a number of remedial actions available to us.

1. Energised transformer oil regeneration (also called reclamation).

The energized regeneration of transformer oil is a well-established and highly successful technique for the restoration of degraded mineral insulating oils to a fully healthy condition.

In addition, when correctly performed, it will remove accumulated sludges and other contaminants from the solid (cellulosic – including the winding insulation paper) insulation.

It is however essential that the process and the governing factors are fully understood and carried out by a knowledgeable and experienced operation.

2. Energised transformer oil purification.

This technique gives us the ability to remove, moisture, gases and particulate matter from the transformer in the energised condition.

3. Transformer oil purification (de-energised condition)

This technique, essentially the same as 2 above, but is carried out on the transformer oil with the transformer de-energised. This may be required when the moisture content of the

Conclusions

By reviewing the way analysis is performed and when a sound understanding of the condition of the paper insulation can be determined. It is possible that by adopting appropriate remedial actions / techniques. The factors and conditions that negatively effect transformer life can be mitigated.

This leads to a reduction in the risk of failure and the extension of the life of these expensive and critical assets, allowing for the proper planning / budgeting of action and often the  deferment of capital expenditure.

Brief review about the production process & Prospectus of the Transformer oil In Asia .

June 20, 2013, 11:24 am

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Brief review about the production process & Prospectus of the Transformer oil In Asia .

K.K.Dhar* , A.K. Das,**

Dipartimento di Chimica Materiali Ingegneria Chimica “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano,

via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy

*kdhar@chem.polimi.itkalyan.dhar@mail.polimi.it

** Professor Department of Applied chemistry & Chemical Engineering University of Dhaka , Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh

Keywords: Oil , Petroleum oil , Highly refined oil .

Abstraction:

Transformer oil forms a very significant part of the transformer insulation system and has the important functions of acting as an electrical insulation as well as a coolant to dissipate heat losses.  

A transformer is a device with two or more stationary electrical circuits that are conductively disjointed but magnetically coupled by a common time varying magnetic field. Transformers are basically passive devices for transforming voltage and current. One of the windings, generally termed as secondary winding, transformer energy through the principle of mutual induction and delivers power to the load. The voltage levels at the primary and secondary winding are usually different and any increase or decrease of the secondary voltage is accompanied by corresponding decrease or increase in current.

A transformer oil has to provide the necessary electrical insulation and at the same time act as a medium for the transfer of heat energy form the core and winding of the transformer.

HISTORY OF TRANSFORMER OIL

The dielectric constant of transformer oils is about 2, and depends on oil composition, being rather higher for more aromatic oils. The basic raw material for the production of transformer oil is a low viscosity lube termed as transformer oil base stock (TOBS), which is normally obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum and subsequent treatment of fractions. Important characteristic of TOBS (given in table 1) must be kept within permissible limits in order to produce good insulating oils. TOBS is further refined by acid treatment process to yield transformer oil.

TABLE : 01 (CHARACTERISTIC OF TOBS)

SL No.	Characteristic	Requirement
1	Viscosity at 37.8oC	58-86 Sec.sus
2	Pour point. max	-12oC
3	Flash point. min	140oC

            Again transformer oil consists of four major generic class of organic compounds, namely, paraffins, napthenes, aromatics and olefines. All these are hydrocarbon and hence insulating oil is called a pure hydrocarbon mineral oil.

            For good fresh insulating oil, it is desirable to have more of saturated paraffins, less of aromatic and napthenes and none of olefines. However for better stability of properties, it is necessary to have optimum aromatic and napthenic hydrocarbons. Such an optimum balance is struck by a carefully controlled refining process. Depending upon the predominance, oil is usually term as of paraffinic base or napthenic base.

TABLE : 02 SCHEDULE OF CHARACTERISTIC OF INSULATING/TRANSFORMER OIL

SL No.	Characteristic	Requirement as per is 335-1983
1	Density at 27oC, max	0.89g/cm3
2	Kinematic viscosity at 27oC, min	27cst
3	Interfacial tension at 27oC min	0.04 N/m
4	Flash point, min	140oC
5	pour point, max	-9oC
6	Neutralization value (total acidity) max	0.03 mgKOH/g
7	Corrosive sulphur	non-corrosive
8	electric strength (breakdown voltage) min a) As received b) After filtration	30 KV (rms) 50 KV (rms)
9	Dielectric dissipation factor (tan-delta) at 90oC, max	0.005
10	Specific resistance (resistivity), min  a)      At 90oC b)      At 27oC	30´1012Wcm. 500´1012Wcm

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL

1. Density : This test has special significance when transformer is operated in a very low temperature zone. The maximum value of density fixed at 27^oC ensures that water in form of ice present in oil remains at the bottom and does not tend to float on the oil are up to a temperature of about -10^oC.
2. Flash point : It is the temperature at which oil gives so much vapour that this vapour, when mixed with air, forms an ignitable mixture and gives a momentary flash on application of flame under prescribed condition. A minimum flash point is specified in order to prevent the risk of fire that might result by accidental ignition.
3. Viscosity :It is a measure of oil resistance to continuous flow without the effect of external forces. The oil must be mobile, as heat transfer in transformers occurs mainly by convection currents, since viscosity increases with decreases in temperature, it is necessary that viscosity be as low as possible at low temperatures.
4. Pour point : The temperature at which oil will just flow under the prescribed conditions is known as the pour point. If the oil becomes too viscous or solidifies, it will hinder the formation of convection currents and thus cooling of equipment will be severely affected.
5. Moisture content : The amount of free and dissolved water present in the oil is its moisture content and is expressed in ppm ( parts per million by weight  i.e. mg/kg). Presence of moisture is harmful since it adversely affects the electrical characteristics of oil and accelerates deterioration of insulating paper.
6. Interfacial tension (IFT) : This is a measure of the molecular attractive force between oil and water molecules at their interface. This test provides a means of detecting soluble polar contaminants and products of deterioration, which decrease molecular attractive force between oil and water. It  is considered that IFT gives an indication of degree of sludging of oil.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OIL

1.      Electric strength (breakdown voltage) :Breakdown voltage is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two electrodes when oil is subjected to an electric filed under prescribed conditions. Electric strength is the basic parameter for insulation system design of a transformer. It serves to indicate the presence of contaminating agents like moisture fibrous materials, carbon particles, precipitable sludge and sediment.

2.      Resistivity (specific resistance) :This is the most sensitive property of oil requiring utmost care for its proper determination. Resistivity in ohm is numerically equivalent to the resistance between opposite faces of centimeter cube of the liquid.

Insulation resistance of winding of a

transformer is also dependent upon the resistivity of oil. A low value indicates the presence of moisture and conductive contaminates. 

3.      Di-electric dissipation factor (DDF) : DDF is numerically equal to sine of the loss angle (approximately equal to tangent of loss angle for dielectrics) and is a good tool to indicate the quality of an insulation. A high value of DDF is an indication of the presence of contaminates as deterioration products such as water, oxidation products, metal soaps, soluble varnishes and resins.  

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSFORMER OILS

1. Oxidation stability : This is the measure of neutralization value and sludge after oil is aged by simulating the actual service conditions of a transformer.

The oxidation stability test is very important for

new oil but not for oil in service and shows the presence of natural inhibitors which impart antioxidation characteristics to oil.

2. Corrosive Sulphur : Crude petroleum usually contains sulphur compounds, most of which are removed during the refining process. This test is designed to detect any traces of free corrosive sulphur that may be present in oil. Presence of corrosive sulphur in oil will result in pitting and black deposit on the surface of bare copper used in transformer, which will adversely affect the dissipation of heat and consequently performance of the equipment.
3. Sediment and precipitable sludge : These are oil deterioration products or contaminants which are insoluble after dilution of the oil with n-heptane under prescribed conditions. However, precipitable sludge is soluble in the solvent mixture of equal parts of toulene, acetone and alcohol but sediment is insoluble in this solvent mixture. These contaminants are determined for oils in service. Oil is considered unsatisfactory for use if sediment or precipitable sludge is detected.

    

4. Neutralization value (total acidity) : It is a measure of free organic and inorganic acids present in the oil and is expressed in terms of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the total free acids in one gram of oil.

Oxidation of oil in service is a consequence of reaction between hydrocarbons present in the oil and oxygen. The oxygen may be atmospheric since oil comes into contact with the atmosphere air during breathing of transformer, or may have been dissolved in oil if oil is not designed properly, or may be liberated due to effect of heat cellulose insulation.

Oxidation of oil is a chain reaction by which organic acids and sludge are formed. Copper present is a large quantity in transformer acts as a strong catalyst in oxidation.

Hence, as far as possible, no bare copper is allowed to be used in power transformers. The product of oxidation are injurious to the insulation system of transformer. Acids formed give rise to formation of sludge which precipitates out and deposits on windings and other parts of transformer.

Acids formed give rise to formation of sludge which precipitates out and deposits on windings and other parts of transformer. This causes hindrance to proper oil circulation and heat dissipation. The acids also encourage deterioration of cellulose insulation i.e. paper, pressboard and wood. Water is produce during oxidation which reduces electric strength of oil and also accelerates corrosion of metals and deterioration of insulating materials.

Hence the measurement the total acidity is the most convenient and direct method of accessing the capability of oil for non-formation of acids during service.

PRODUCTION AND REQUIREMENT OF TRANSFORMER OIL IN BANGLADESH

REQUIREMENT OF TRANSFORMER OIL IN BANGLADESH

SOURCE : RURAL ELECTRICAL BOARD (REB)

Capacity of transformer	No. of phases (j)	No. of Transformer	Weight of oil per transformer (in kg)	Amount of oil (in kg)
10 MVA	3j	12	4,000	48,000
5MVA	3j	20	3,000	60,000
3.33MVA	1j	32	2,000	64,000
1.67 MVA	1j	40	1600	6400
100KVA	1j	200	110	22,000
75KVA	1j	500	95	47500
50KVA	1j	1000	85	85000
37.5KVA	1j	1800	75	135000
25KVA	1j	3500	65	227500
15KVA	1j	10000	45	45000
10KVA	1j	30000	30	300000
5KVA	1j	24000	22	528000
Total				1568400 kg

Total amount of transformer oil required (REB) in (2003-2004 year) = 1568400 kg = 1568 T

SOURCE : POWER DEVELOPMENT BOARD  (PDB)

Requirement for year	Materials (Transformer oil)	Requirement of supply zone	present storage	Total amount of transformer oil	Cost of transformer oil
					Total cost	Unit cost
2004-05	Do	2500 Drum	47 Drum	10,0000	75,00000	75/=
2003-04	Do	-	500 Drum	20,0000	15,000000	75/=
2002-03	Do	-	2000 Drum	2,00000	15000000	75/=
2001-02	Do	-	-	50000	3750000	75/=

            So from the above data we can easily calculate that the total demand of transformer oil in our country (2003-2004 year) = 2000 tone/year. 

            \ Total demand per year : 2000 tone/year.   

LITERATURE SURVEY

The chemical structure of transformer oil : Transformer oils are obtained by processing petroleum. Petroleum differs in chemical composition according to its source. This also applies to its products, especially to transformer oils. It has been found in practice that the service properties of the oils depend both on their origin and on their production method, and that there is a certain relationship between the chemical composition of transformer oils and their service properties.

A) Hydrocarbon constituents of transformer oil : The hydrocarbon compound which  constitute the major part of the oil, can be divided into three main groups :

                                                              i.      Paraffins

                                                            ii.      Napthenes

                                                          iii.      Aromatic compounds.

i) Paraffins :Paraffins are saturated hydrocarbon with a straight chain (normal paraffin in fig (i) or a branched chain (iso paraffins) in fig (ii) without any cyclic structure

 

ii) Napthenes : Cyclo paraffin or alicyclic compounds (populary called napthenes) are saturated hydrocarbons containing one or more five-or-six-membered rings. Eaxh of these rings may have one or several straight or branched side chain, depending on the number of rings, napthenes are monocyclic (iii), bycyclic (iv) and so on.

 

iii) Aromatic hydrocarbons: Aromatic hydrocarbons contain one (v) or several aromatic rings which may be combined with alicyclic rings; the rings may or may not be alkyl chains and/or paraffin side chains. The aromatic nuclei may be condensed as in napthalene and phenanthrene (vi) or isolated (vii). A mixed alicyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is shown structure (viii).

 

Unsaturated hydrocarbon (hydrocarbons having one or more olefinic bonds) are not usually found in transformer oil prepared from straight run distillation products of petroleum.  

B) Non hydrocarbons constituent of transformer oils : The non hydrocarbons constituents of transformer oils comprise tarry asphaltic substances, sulphur and nitrogen containing organic compounds, napthenic acids, esters, alcohol and organometallic compounds.

i) Tars : During purification of transformer oil distillates a large amount of tars is removed. Their content is the final treatment oils does not as a rule exceed 2-2.5%. The tars have been classified as follows :

a.       Neutral tars

b.      Asphaltenes

c.       Carbenes

d.      Asphaltogenic acids and their anhydrids.   

ii) Sulphur compounds: Sulphur compounds are present in all petroleum crudes. Their amounts however very from less thanb 1 to 20 wt/. They have a considerable influence on the properties of the petroleum and determine which treatments are used in its processing.

The  main group of sulfur compounds of petroleum are as follows.

a.       Mercaptans (thiols)

b.      Sulfides (thia alkanes)

c.       Disulfides (dithia alkanes)

d.      Thiophenes

iii) Nitrogen compounds :

iv) Napthenic acids and other oxygen containing compounds

v) Metal containing compounds

C) PRODUCTION OF TRANSFORMER OILS : Transformer oil are produced by refining petroleum distillates which boil between 300 and        400^oC at atmospheric pressure.

Classification of production :

            Transformer oils made from petroleum are classified in accordance with the methods of refining the distillate :

1)      Acid-alkaline purification.

2)      Selective solvents extraction.   

3)      Deparaffination.

4)      Contact purification using adsorbents.

5)      Hydrogenation under pressure.

A combination of two or more of these methods is generally used.

Industrial refining method:

            The purpose of refining the oil is the removal of undesirable constituents which adversely affect its stability to oxidation, its electrical insulating properties, and its low temperature fluidity. These undesirable constituents include unsaturated hydrocarbons, nitrogen compounds, some sulfur compounds, tars, polycyclic hydrocarbons with short side chains and solid hydrocarbons (particularly paraffin and mineral waxes)

The  industrial refining methods are briefly summarized hereunder:

1) Acid-alkaline purification :

Principle: Acid-alkaline purification is essentially the treatment of the distillate by 93-98% Sulfuric Acid (followed by washing with aqueous alkali). The amount of acid used depends on the chemical composition of the raw materials and the degree of refining required, and varies between 5 and 20%.

But the disadvantage of purification with sulfuric acid are as follows :

a)        The acid is insufficiently selective; together with the undesirable constituents removed, valuable constituents are also entrained by the sulfuric acid sludge, while some sulfur compounds and mixed alicyclic aromatic substances are incompletely removed.

_b)          The sludge formed is useless, its removal is complicated and expensive, and reservoirs are necessary for its storage.

c)        These drawbacks as well as the necessity of increasing the production of transformer oils by using less suitable raw materials led to the development of new methods.

2) The selective solvent extraction :

Principle: The selective solvent extraction of undesirable componenets from the distillate is based on the differences in solubilities between the individual classes of chemical compounds in the distillate.

            Phenol is mostly used at present for the production of transformer oils from sulfur containing crudes.In theorderof decreasing solubility in phenol the constituents of transformer oils can be arranged as follows : tars, sulfur and nitrogen compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and finally napthenes and paraffin hydrocarbons.

            In order to increase the selectivity of phenol, 3-7% water is added. The yield of the refined oil depends on the quality of the raw material and the amount of phenol used; it averages about 70%.

Process description :

            In fig (1) extract stripper steam and some other vapours are sent through an absorber held at 225 to 245^o F wherein the incoming charge absorbs phenol from the stripping steam. Total losses of phenol are said to be under 0.04% of the phenol circulated.

The operation steps are as follows :

a.       Heated lubricating oil-stock absorbs phenol from steam, etc (mainly extract and raffinate stripping steam) at about 235^o F. Stock is cooled and contacted with phenol in a counter current extraction tower. The bottom of the tower is cooled to about 110^o F with phenolic water for distillate stocks or 155^o F for residual stocks and the top is kept warm (150^o F for distillate and 230^o F for residual stocks) by hot phenol.

b.      The valuable raffinate (about 20% phenol) is heated to about 550^o F and flashed at atmospheric pressure and it then flows downward into a vacuum fractionation and steam stripping tower (22 in mercury vacuum) for the removal of phenol down to about 0.001%.

c.       The low viscosity index extract when operating on a pennylvania stock contains about 85% phenol and 8% water. Phenolic water is removed from it by heating to about 650^o F and fractionating in the small tower situated above the phenolic water tower. It passes to storage through a steam stripper which reduces the phenol to about 0.005%.         

3) Deparaffination:

Principle : The solid hydrocarbons are not removed by any of the other refining processes (acid-alkali, phenol, hydrogenation or adsorption). Moreover, as a result of the removal of about 30% of the tars and aromatic hydrocarbons, the concentration of the solid hydrocarbons (mainly paraffins) increases. 

            The refined transformer oil after treatment with phenol has a solidification point of 20^o C. The introduction of additives does not decrease the solidification point. In order to separate the solid hydrocarbons the oil is treated with a solution containing methyl ethyl ketone (MEA).

            This is followed by thermal treatment at 50-70^o C  i.e. 25-30^o C higher than the cloud point of the oil, cooling to the temperature required                        (-55-60^o C), and finally separation of the solid hydrocarbons by vacuum filtration or centrifuging.

            It has been proposed that activated charcoal be used for deparaffination, since unlike silica gel, alumina gel or bleaching clays, it can adsorb on its surface hydrocarbons with long, almost unbranched chains (mainly solid normal) paraffins.  

Essential equipments : According to Ebner and Mertens the essential equipment for an MEK deparaffination plant consists of seven major sections :-

a)      Direct-expansion ammonia chillers.

b)     Double-pipe scrapped surface exchangers for both solvent dewaxing and wax recrystallizing process sections.

c)      Continues dewaxing filters.

d)     Tubular exchangers to chill wash solvent.

e)      Flue gas generation, circulation and chilling.

f)       Products recovery system for dewaxed oil, slack wax, slop wax filtrate, product wax.

g)      Solvent water separating and recovery system.

Process description : A flow diagram of the MEK process is indicated in fig (2). The wax bearing oil and the solvent streams are mixed under control of a ratio flow controller. The oil solvent stream flows through exchangers and chillers, from which it emerges at a controlled temperature which is maintain by regulating the pressure on the refrigerant side of the charge mix chiller. 

            The liquid phase of the charge to the filters is adjusted to the proper filtration viscosity by the addition of chilled solvent to the chilled oil solvent mixture.

Recovery of solvent from the wax cake is accomplished in a manner similar to that from the filtrate, except that any water inadvertently entering the oil or solvent side of the dewaxing system quickly finds its way as ice into wax cake. To remove this water, the wax cake is heated before evaporation of solvent to a controlled temperature of about 130^o F at which the water readily forms a separate layer.

Several stocks are usually dewaxed in a single plant using a single solvent mixture and accordingly the proper amount of solvent for each stock must be determined.

4) Contact purification (Clay treatment):

Principle : In this method, the oil is mixed with bleaching earth (clay), subjected to heating until absorption is completed and finally filtered to remove the clay from the oil. The bleaching earths usually contain aluminum hydrosilicates. The adsorptional properties of the clays depend not only on the chemical composition but also on the structure of the particles, pore diameter, moisture content and particle size.

Process description :

            Thermofor continuous percolation process (clay process) is a continuous regenerative process for stabilizing and decolorizing lubricants or waxes that have been distilled, solvent refined or acid treated (in fig-3). The charge stock in heated to 50-175^o C, injected into the base of a clay filled tower and allowed to percolate in countercurrent flow through the bed. Spent clay is continuously withdrawn from the base of the tower; regenerated clay is added to the top of the bed to maintain a constant level. 

5. Refining by hydrogenation (treatment with hydrogen)

Principle : In contrast to the methods mentioned above, this process is based on a chemical conversion of the hydrocarbon and sulfur compounds contained in the transformer distillates.

            This is the main distinction and advantage of this method. In the production of transformer oils, hydrogenation of the distillates is followed by distillation  of the hydrogenated product, deparaffination and contact or percolation purification with an adsorbent. 

SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR PRODUCTION OF TRANSFORMER OIL

            In recent years there has been a growing tendency to use low-viscosity transformer oils in order to improve the cooling properties of transformer. This is achieved by narrowing the fractional composition of the oil while somewhat lowering the flash point.

            Special attention is devoted to improving the insulating properties of the oil i.e. to decreasing tand, the tangent of the dielectric loss angle, to decrease the hygroscopicity and to increasing the gassing resistibility of the liquid dielectric under the influence of corona. The decrease in tand is attained by through adsorptional contact purification; this is an essential final step in the polishing of the oil.

            The hygroscopicity of the oil is decreased by lowering the level of polaradmixtures and aromatic hydrocarbons; it should be noted, however, that the latter impart a high gassing resistibility to the oils. The chemical stability is a basic service index of transformer oils. In this respect a very high level a tars and aromatic hydrocarbons, especially polycyclics with short side chains, is undesirable since they tend to form deposits under the conditions in which transformer oil is used.

Taking into account these incompatible requirements with respect to chemical properties, the following choices are available in the production of transformer oils from petroleum.

1) Production of oil with optimum chemical composition by means of comparatively mild acid-alkali treatment, selective (solvent treatment) or adsorptional refining.

            Because of the increasingly strigngent requirement, the production of a suitable oil in this way becomes an increasingly difficult task, which can only be solved by using high quality crudes as raw material. An improvement in the properties of such oil can be achieved by adding antioxidants, though it should be borne in mind that an oil which has not been intensively refined absorbs only slightly the standard additives or those now being investigated.

2) Production by the same methods of oils refined to higher degree :

            The stability and gassing resistibility of oils can be increased to the necessary level  by means of special additives such as antioxidants and substances which increase the gassing resistibility under electrical stress. This method can be used in processing lower-quality crudes.

3) Production of oils by methods making it possible to change at will  the chemical structure of its constituents:

         This trend includes destructive hydrogenation. The permissible concentration of sulfur in transformer oils is a serious problem. It is known that some sulfur compounds are inhibitors of oxidation and can passivate metals.

            It has been shown that concentrates of sulfur containing sulfur compounds isolated from distillates are inhibitors.  On the other hand,  organic sulfur compounds which do not contain sulfides do not inhibit the oxidation process.           It was experimentally proved that when a distillate of a sulfur containing crude is purified with phenol, the oil with 0.3-0.4% sulfur is the most stable. On the other hand, it has been claimed that the higher the sulfur level in an oil refined with phenol, the higher its stability; in any case the sulfur  concentration may be as high as 1%.

            In selective (solvent) refining of a distillate of sulfur containing crudes the sulfur compounds are extracted together with the tars and the aromatic hydrocarbons. Therefore the level of sulfur in an oil indicates the degree of refining.  Thus the optimum degree of refining of an oil without added inhibitors is indirectly determined by the sulfur content; a higher susceptibility of the oil to the action of antioxidants is attained by a higher degree of refining i.e. a lower sulfur content.

           

Phenol refined oil containing 1% sulfur is unstable both in the pure form and with up to 0.7% Ionol (butyalated cresol mixture) additive. An oil containing 0.4-0.6% sulfur inhibited by 0.2-0.3% Ionol is satisfactory generally the upper limit of sulfur content in the oil is considered 0.6%.

           

Thus, based on the above discussion and also considering the cost effectiveness in the context of Bangladesh, the following general scheme for production of transformer oil, from vacuum distillate (fraction 300-400^oC), consisting of three treatment processes e.g. phenol solvent extraction, MEK deparaffination and clay treatment is selected.  

ADDITIVES FOR IMPROVING QUALITY AND SERVICE LIFE OF TRANSFORMER OIL

            The following additives are used industrially for the stabilization of transformer oils:-

        i.      Phenyl-b-napthylamine (PBN)

      ii.      2,6-di-tert-4-methylphenol (DBPC) (trade name include Ionol, Topanol-0, and vianol, and 2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol,

These additives are introduced into the oil in amounts ranging from 0.1-0.5%. For regenerated oils the concentration of additives may be increased to 1%.

In many countries, Ionol, p-hydroxydiphenylamine and pyramidene are used for these purpose. The most widely used additives is Ionol. Because-

1.                             It can almost completely prevent the formation of precipitates in thoroughly purified oils ; the oxidation products are soluble in the oil.

2.                             The additive readily dissolves in the oil the even when highly concentrated .

3.                             The use of Ionol in oils purified by phenol from sulfur containing crudes.

The only drawbacks of Ionol is  the fact that it must be added to the oil in large amount (0.2-0.5 wt%) like most additives, Ionol is effective in inhibiting the oxidation of oils which have been extensively purified.

MAJOR EQUIPMENTS AND MACHINERIES REQUIRED

1.	Extraction (Solvent) tower.
2.	Continuous vacuum filter for MEK Deparaffination.
3.	Extract stripper for phenol treatment.
4.	Absorber (Phenol). For water elimination.
5.	Phenol storage tank.
6.	Treating tower for phenol treatment.
7.	Raffinate tower (phenol)
8.	2 coil stil (phenol)
9.	Water and phenol tower.
10.	Ketone fractionator.
11.	Surge tk. for MEK Deparaffination.
12.	Accum Tank (MEK).
13.	Flash tank (MEK).
14.	Wax storage tank
15.	Feed tank for MEK Deparaffination.
16.	Receiver tank (MEK)
17.	Settling tank (MEK)
18.	Foam trap tank (MEK)
19.	Dewaxed oil stripper.
20.	Wax stripper
21.	Clay burning kiln and drier.
22.	Percolator for clay treatment.
23.	Washer for clay treatment.
24.	Extract tower.

 

The Principle scheme of this extraction tower is hereunder:

1- Phenol – water inlet 2- Feed (Fr. 300-4000c) inlet 3- Cold Recycle inlet 4- Extract outlet 5- Hot Recycle stream outlet

6- phenol inlet 7- Raffinate outlet 8- Safety valve 9- Distributors 10 -Level indicators

						III
			I
									IV
									IV
										IV
							II

The Principle scheme of this multistage extract stripper represented as:

I-       Raw-extract inlet.

II-    Product –extract outlet

III-Vapor outlet

IV-Steam

PROCESS CONTROL AND QUALITY CONTROL OF TRANSFORMER OIL

Various process control and quality control are operated to get the desired products with desired quality. The process control ensures the continuation of the process. For the control of process the industry required a control room from which an operator can easily control of the process temperature and pressure within the desire range.

On the other hand, the quality control ensure, the product quality and the inspection decides whether the certain item or production meets the requirements or not. This is done in a laboratory. The process comprises of the following steps.

Raw material Section:

Before the preparation of the feed stock raw materials are analyzed to check the required quality.

Product testing:

Before final delivery of the product it is tested to check density, activity, composition etc, so that it attains the market demanded quality. In case of inferior products, it is recycled to the process.

Materials of construction:

In the selection of material for the construction of material for the construction of a chemical unit, resistance to the corroding medium is usually the determining factor. Other important factors are elevated temperature and pressure. The choice of material and its stability in the presence of transformer oils is of great importance and essential for safe handling of transformer oil.

The temperature of the transformer is directly connected with the life of the insulating materials, and so careful attention is necessary. The maximum temperature allowed for the oil is 90⁰c in case that the oil comes is contact with the air and 95⁰c in case that the oil is out of contact with the air when the ambient temperature is 40⁰c.

The oil level has always to be checked from the view point of insulation and cooling.

The Dialectic Strength of transformer oil:

The Transformer is a main part that insulates the transformer and lowering of its dielectric strength means lowering of dielectric strength of the transformer itself therefore this must be carefully inspected. The dielectric strength of oil has been standardized above 30 kv at 2.5 mm sphere gap, if the strength is lower refinement or new oil filling is necessary.

The dielectric strength is also subject to moisture and foreign materials contained in the oil. In measuring the dielectric strength, the fluctuation of the measured values will be so large that they become unless sampling of the oil be done with care and a proper method of test be selected.

Storage and shipment:

The storage is done by using stainless steel storage tanks. Small amount of transformer oil are shipped in steel cylinders, large amount of transformer oil has been transported by rail in tank cars of 36 and 107 m³ capacity.

MATERIAL BALANCE FOR PRODUCTION OF TRANSFORMER OIL

Production capacity 2000 MT/Yr,

Transformer  oil stream days- 330

1. Material balance for phenol solvent extraction

Input				Output
Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%	Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%
Vacuum distillate (fraction 3000-4000c)	4880	14787.88	100.00	Raffinate	2930	8878.79	60.00
Phenol	(9760))			Extract	1950	5909.09	40.00
TOTAL	4880	14787.88	100.00		4880	14787.88	100.00

2. Material balance for MEK  Deparaffination

Input				Output
Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%	Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%
Raffinate from solvent extraction	2930	8878.78	100.0	Dewaxed oil	2050	6212.12	70.00
Solvent (MEK)	(8790)			Slack wax	880	2666.66	30.00
TOTAL	2930	8878.78	100.00		2930	8878.78	100.00

3. Material balance for clay treatment

Input				Output
Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%	Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%
Dewaxed oil	2050	6212.12	100.0	Transformer oil base stock (TOBS)	1940	5878.78	94.6
(Clay)	(123)		(6.0)	Loss of oil with clay	110	333.33	5.4
TOTAL	2050	6212.12	100.0		2050	6212.12	100.0

4. Material balance for compounding

Input				Output
Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%	Material	MT/year	Kg/day	%
Transformer oil base stock (TOBS)	1940	5878.78	99.7	Transformer oil	2000	6060.61	100
Additives	60	181.82	0.3
TOTAL	2000	6060.61	100.0		2000	6060.61	100.0

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION, HAZARD AND SAFETY ASPECTS

Environmental pollution is one of the most vital problems faced by human being. To some extent, environmental pollution is an inescapable by product of industrial development. There are many kinds of environmental pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, land pollution, noise pollution etc.

Considerable pressure has developed in recent years from the EPA and similar to discontinuous disposal of waste transformer oil in streams, chemical dumps and other environmental channels. The problem has been highlighted by possible health hazards resulting from the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons as well as sulfur, chlorine, and other additive materials of questionable toxicity in the oils.

Although most of the constituents of transformer oil  are not, or only slightly, soluble in water, some of the additives and some of the organic constituents can be dissolved in water to a certain extent. These components can easily infiltrate into soil to reach the aquifer. The transfer of the main components of  aliphatic structure takes much longer, but then leads to long term contamination, because of their chemical stability and persistence in biological system.

a.      Direct effects:

The most obvious and evident effects of pollution caused by used oil dumped into aquatic systems are the well known specific effects on water surface. Due to its density, oil covers the surface of water, while the biodegradation of most of its component is very low, spilled oil remains for a long this in ecosystems; the oil layer on water surface decreases solar radiation into the water, as well as oxygen supply through water surface, resulting in considerable reduction of biological activity. Oily particles with an increased density sink to the bottom, where they affect plant growth. large amounts of oil, accumulated on the bottom of an aquatic system can destroy aquatic life completely.

Burnt used oil causes air pollution, related to the released toxic inorganic and organic compounds. Human health as well as flora and fauna are directly affected by co, so_x, No_x, soot particles and many other pollutants.

b.       Indirect effects:

In addition to the direct impact on plants, either in terrestrial or aquatic systems, the negative effect on plant growth or the biological activity of soils encourage denser vegetation and increases erosion, on slopes as well as along river banks.

The extreme stability and chemical properties of oil constituents promote accumulation in fat tissues, leading to considerable levels of concentration at the end of the chain. The indirect effect is used. Transformer oil which is discharged in the environment in an uncontrolled way can exceed the direct ones by far, it spilled oil reaches the ground water.

 Pollutants, released to air where used oil is burnt under improper and unsuitable conditions, can affect systems in the long term due to the extreme persistence and high transfer rates of some of the released organic compounds or heavy metals to organic structure. 

Preventive measures:

 Risk avoidance by general preventive design measures, as well as reactive fire. In safety concepts, distinctions are made between primary, secondary and tertiary measures. Primary safety precautions aim at the exclusion of causative risks such s leakage, formation of explosive mixtures by proper conceptual design. Secondary measures consist mainly in the avoidance of ignition sources of any kind (electro-statically or mechanically generated sparks). Tertiary measures should minimize dangerous results in case fire or explosion relief systems and suitable fire extinguishing systems.

Protective equipment for handling transformer oil:

(a)    Eyes: wear chemical type’s goggles or face shield (optional).

(b)   Skin: Exposed employees should exercise reasonable personal cleanliness; this includes cleaning exposed skin areas several times daily with soap and water and laundering or dry cleaning soiled work clothing at least weekly.

(c)    Respiratory: None required if exposures are within permissible concentrations.

Special precautions:

(a) Storage:

             I.      Minimum feasible handling temperatures should be maintained.

          II.      Periods of exposure to high temperature should be minimum.

(b) Handling: Water contamination should be avoided.

(c) Ventilation: Normal.

(d) Unusual fire Hazards: Avoid heat sources, open flames and other sources of ignition.

Safety Regulations:

Regulations (mandatory) and standards (mandatory or non mandatory) apply for the safe production, storage and handling of transformer oil. They are mostly concerned with transpiration; other operations are covered by more general regulations. Excellent listings are given for the United States and for Canada.

United States: Examples of non mandatory standards are those issued by ASME, ANSI, NFPA etc. That may be adopted by regulatory bodies. Current mandatory regulations are title 49 of CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) and the requirements of DOT (Department of Transport). General industrial safety materials including the production and handling of transformer oil are regulated by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration).

Federal republic of Germany: Mandatory regulations for installations and instructions for the prevention of accidents instructions for the transport of dangerous goods.

CONCLUSION

We know the present century is the century of industrialization. A careful out looking of the developed countries established the fact that no nation can step forward without rapid industrialization. Although our country is on agri-based, its economical condition is not stepped forward for the shortage of small and large industry especially for the petroleum refinery industry. Bangladesh is least development country. The industry will be able to contribute to the national economy and at the same time will provide a number of employment people.

Some important properties of transformer oil such as water contents, Pour point, flash point, viscosity and color slandered of used transformer oil, virgin transformer oil base stock obtained from crude oil and different grade of fresh transformer oil have been studied   due to comparison.

From the above description about transformer oil industry, we find that the demand of transformer oil is about 2000 Metric Ton in our country.

From the literature survey we can easily say that a lot of amount of transformer oil is used in the various capacity of transformer.  So transformer oil will be always demandable for our country and its demand will increases in Bangladesh with the increase of number of transformer.

The fuel and water supply can be easily meet up by Titas gas and rivers. Land cost in our country is very lower than that of other foreign country. The proposed industry is petroleum refinery based industry and will not handle too much explosive hazardous chemicals so the risk factors are minimum. It will also less environmental pollution related industry.

From the discussion of technology that its manufacturing process is easy. Required equipments and machines are not so complicated. Some of the equipments must be imported from foreign countries. Additives must be imported from foreign countries because these are not produced in our country. Petroleum is available in our country. Since transformer oil manufacturing process is basically a petroleum refinery product (originated from lubricating oil) there is possibility to set up a transformer oil industry in our country in future. The most advantage of manufacturing transformer oil is that there is no severe environmental pollution occurs during the process. From the economic studies we see that for making a industry which have a capacity to fulfill the demand i.e. 2000 MT/ year need a lot of capital investment.  The working capital investment per year is high which also contain the machinery and    equipment cost. Though equipment and machinery expense is high, calculation showed that we have a annual rate of return about           % for 2000 MT/year capacity which is acceptable for our country and the product can be supplied at imported rate or lower than imported rate.

The break-even point unit is    Metric Ton which is      % of annual capacity i.e. 2000 MT. If the money for capital investment is not available then we can import raw material at 3 month basis which reduce capital investment or we can produce one portion of our demand and other portion are imported which reduce capital investment

From the above works I would like to say certainly that the establishment of transformer oil base stock industry will be beneficial and profitable in the context of Bangladesh.

REFERENCES

1.            Petroleum Refinery engineering

By- W. L. Nelson.

2.            The chemistry and technology of petroleum

By- James G. speight.

3.            Transformer

By- BHEL

4.            Transformer Oil

By- R.A. Lipshtein and M. I. Shakhnovich

5.            Modern petroleum Technology

By- G.D. HOBSON.

6.            The petroleum Hand book

By- ELSEVIER

7.            Shreve’s Chemical process industries

By- GEORGE T. Austin

8.              Outlines of chemical technology

By- DRYDENS

9.            Industrial Chemistry

By- R.K. DAS

10.        Industrial Waste water treatment

By- M.N. RAO, A.K. DATTA

11.        Encyclopedia of chemical technology

By- Krick Othmer

12.        Environmental chemistry

By- Moore, John W., Elizabeth.

13.        Hand book of chemical Engineering

By- Perry

14.        Liquid- Liquid Extraction

By-L. Alders

15.        Unit operations of chemical engineering

By- McCabe, Smith.

16.        Plant design and economics for chemical engineers

By- Max. S. Peters, Kians, D. Timerhaus.

17.        Encyclopedia Americana

Vol. 22

18.        Abstract of chemical technology

Vol. 52

19.        Environmental pollution and management.

By- Pramed singh.

20.        SIRI Illustration catalogue of machines

By- O. M. Tandon

21.        The new encycloptedia Britannica

Vol. - 14

SOURCE OF INFORMATION

1.                Power development Board (PDB)

Abdul goni road, Dhaka

2.                Rural Electrical Board (REB)

Khilkhet, Dhaka.

Meeting of the GEF Council and 14th meeting of the Least Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund (LDCF/SCCF) Council

June 20, 2013, 8:31 pm

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Global Environment Facility (GEF) consultation meeting with Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), 44th Meeting of the GEF Council and 14th meeting of the Least Developed Countries Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund (LDCF/SCCF) Council 17-20 June 2013 | World Bank headquarters, Washington, DC, United States of America

Introduction - 17 June- 18 June- 19 June- 20 June

Highlights for Monday, 17 June 2013, CSO Consultation Summary

	CSO Consultation Summary: Faizal Parish, GEF NGO Network Central Focal Point, opened the GEF Council Consultation Meeting with Civil Society Organizations on Monday, 17 June 2013, noting this unique platform for dialogue and exchange of ideas for the long term planning and implementation of GEF policy and programmes. CSO Dialogue with the GEF CEO and Chairperson Naoko Ishii, CEO and Chairperson of the GEF, highlighted the need for a bold policy strategy embodied in, among other things, the GEF 2020 Strategy and the sixth replenishment of the GEF (GEF 6) to tackle the underlying drivers of global environmental degradation. She stressed strengthening partnerships with CSOs and other stakeholders, and underscored results- and knowledge-based management systems to enhance the work of the GEF. Responding to questions, Ishii: noted that the time taken to engage CSOs is less compared to the past, but a lot remains to be done to fully engage the CSOs; stressed the importance of convincing governments to foster CSO involvement in national level implementation; and highlighted the role of cities in leading the dialogue on involving national governments in environmental protection, particularly between the period 2015-2020, when there is a potential climate change governance gap. Session 1: The Road Towards GEF 6 This session was co-moderated by Pillar Barrera, GEF Secretariat, and Essam Nada, Regional Focal Point for North Africa. Participants heard from members of the GEF Secretariat dealing with seven focal areas: climate change mitigation, chemicals and wastes, climate change adaptation, biodiversity, international waters, land degradation, and sustainable forest management. The discussion focused on a range of issues, including: guidelines for CSO engagement in GEF projects; the advantages and disadvantages of multi-focal approaches to climate smart agriculture; the need for political will at the national level to involve CSOs in dealing with environmental degradation; the negative link between poverty alleviation and environmental degradation; the need for the GEF to engage at the convention-level, and also engage actors at the national and local levels; the GEF’s support for the Bamako Convention on the management of hazardous wastes in Africa; co-financing of sustainable forestry management projects; the integration of adaptation in all GEF focal areas; and the need for CSOs to be more proactive in providing input to national plans of implementation. Robert van den Berg, Director, GEF Evaluation Office, then presented a sub-study on CSO involvement to be completed by October 2013, and participants suggested, inter alia, a section on the constraints to CSO engagement including resources. Session 2: Interactive Dialogue on the Future Strategic Role of GEF This session was co-moderated by Faizal Parish and Fiu Mataese Elisara, Regional Focal Point for the Pacific Region. Claus Astrup, Advisor to the GEF CEO, GEF Secretariat, presented the GEF 2020 Strategy, which underscores the need to: understand the drivers of global environmental degradation; engage proactively with partners; and strengthen the GEF as a knowledge institution. Presenting on "CSO Perspectives on the Future of GEF," Maria Leichner, Regional Focal Point for South America, called for further understanding the links between civil society and the GEF in order to fortify partnerships. Victor Kawanga, Regional Focal Point for Southern Africa region, argued that CSOs posses specific skills resulting from operations on the ground. In the panel discussion, Ximena George-Nascimento, GEF Council Member Alternate, Chile, proposed better engagement with the operational focal points to promote a stronger information flow between the focal points and the CSOs. Maryam Naimir-Fuller, UN Environment Programme, noted calls for synergies within multilateral environmental agreements, and lauded the GEF’s move towards multi-focal activities. Matthew Kotchen, GEF Council Member, US, highlighted the technical assistance provided by the GEF, as well as the policy reform it engages in, noting that these institutional approaches are as important as the work on the ground. Delfin Ganapin, GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP), noted that GEF 6 will see the SGP transform into a “grantmaker plus (+),” and scale up small projects to medium sized projects. Godwin Fishani Gondwe, GEF Council Member Alternate, Zambia, stressed understanding the drivers of unsustainable development in order to propose and implement helpful solutions for all three pillars of sustainable development. Participants then discussed, inter alia; the role of the GEF in the emerging sustainable development goals; the need for disaggregated data showing the benefits of the SGP to Indigenous Peoples; the relationship between governments and CSOs;  scaling up GEF 2020; private sector engagement; and the role of the NGO Network  in shaping GEF policy. CLOSING: Faizal Parish noted that implementation of the GEF 2020 will require resources from both the traditional donor governments and new partnerships, underscored the need to fully define “CSO engagement” in order to set targets to enhance it, and suggested that GEF 6 consider further involving CSOs in their signature programmes in order to foster greater public engagement. He closed the Consultation at 4:38pm.

	A view of the opening plenary of the GEF Council Consultation meeting with the CSOs.

Faizal Parish, GEF-NGO Network Central Focal Point Naoko Ishii, GEF CEO and Chairperson

Naoko Ishii, GEF CEO and Chairperson, delivering her opening remarks.

Valentin Ciubotaru, NGO BIOS, Moldova Gino Van Begin, Secretary-General, ICLEI Samuel Dotse, Regional Focal Point for West Africa region, GEF-NGO Network

Mohammed Al Masalha, Dean, Faculty of International Studies, University of Jordan, Jordan Tcharbuahbokengo Nfinn, Regional Focal Point for Central African region, GEF-NGO Network Rita Mishaan, FundaEco, Guatemala

Naoko Ishii, GEF CEO and Chairperson, answering questions from CSO consultation participants

Session 1: The Road Towards GEF 6

L-R: Essam Nada, Regional Focal Point for North African region, GEF NGO Network, and Pillar Barrera, GEF Secretariat

L-R: Ibrahima Sow, GEF Secretariat; Ian Gray, GEF Secretariat; Essam Nada, Regional Focal Point for North African region, GEF-NGO Network; Pillar Barrera, GEF Secretariat; Chizuru Aoki, GEF Secretariat, Astrid Hillers, GEF Secretariat; and Mark Zimsky, GEF Secretariat

Ulrich Apel, GEF Secretariat (Land Degradation) Mark Zimsky, GEF Secretariat (Biodiversity) Chizuru Aoki, GEF Secretariat(Climate Change Mitigation)

Ibrahima Sow, GEF Secretariat (Chemicals and Wastes) Bonizella Biagini, GEF Secretariat (Climate Change Adaptation) Ian Gray, GEF Secretariat (Sustainable Forest Management)

L-R: Robert van den Berg, GEF Secretariat; Essam Nada, Regional Focal Point for North African region, GEF-NGO Network, and Pillar Barrera, GEF Secretariat

Session 2: Interactive Dialogue on Future Strategic Role of GEF

L-R: Fiu Mataese Elisara, Regional Focal Point for the Pacific region, GEF-NGO Network, and Faizal Parish, GEF-NGO Network Central Focal Point, co-moderators of the session

Victor Kawanga, Regional Focal Point for Southern Africa, GEF-NGO Network María Liechner Kindsvater, Regional Focal Point for South American region, GEF-NGO Network /Fundacion ECOS Claus Astrup, GEF Secretariat

Maryam Niamir-Fuller, United Nations Environment Programme Delfin Ganapin, Global Manager, GEF Small Grants Programme (SGP) Ximena George-Nascimento, GEF Council Member Alternate, Chile

Faizal Parish, GEF-NGO Network Central Focal Point, summarized the day's consultations and closed the consultation at 4:38 pm.

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June 20, 2013, 8:40 pm

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Brand new Liebherr LR 1750 750MT Crawler Crane

 

 

http://www.neostructo.com/news.html

In line with our policy of self reliance of construction machinery, we have recently acquired the brand new Liebherr LR 1750 crawler crane from Liebherr, Germany. This 750 MT capacity crane is specially procured for the heavy equipment erection jobs at various projects. This has added Neo Structo into the elite group of the construction companies of India who own heavy cranes.

New rules for international trade in timber, marine and other wild animals and plants come into force

June 20, 2013, 8:52 pm

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PRESS RELEASE

New rules for international trade in timber, marine and other
wild animals and plants come into force

178 member States of CITES to implement new listings and 201 Decisions and
Resolutions adopted in Bangkok 90 days ago. Six countries enter
specific reservations to shark and ray listings

Geneva, 14 June 2013 – The new listings of species and the 165 Decisions and 36 Resolutions adopted or revised at the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in Bangkok, in March 2013 entered into force on Wednesday 12th June. As a result, the 178 member countries will start regulating the international trade in over three hundred new species now protected by CITES.
The CITES Secretary-General, John E. Scanlon, said: “After a highly successful meeting of the Conference of the Parties in March, we are now moving full steam ahead to implement the decisions taken by the 178 Parties to CITES. Through the CITES permit system, exporters, importers and consumers of precious timber, marine and other valuable species can have confidence that they are using legally and sustainably harvested specimens. The new regulations will also help better ensure that illegal wildlife trade can be identified, intercepted, and responded to, including being treated as a serious crime, where appropriate.”
International trade in a range of rosewoods and ebonies from Asia, Central America and Madagascar now listed in CITES Appendix II will require that exports of these timbers be accompanied by CITES permits issued upon findings that there is no detriment to the wild populations.
The joint programme between CITES and the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) will support the efforts of the countries concerned to strengthen their capacities to implement the Convention. Germany announced that it would contribute more funding to the EUR 7.5 million that has already been generously made available for a second phase of the programme, by the European Union, other Parties and the private sector.
Recognizing that implementation of the listings for the oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus), scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini), great hammerhead shark (Sphyrna mokarran), smooth hammerhead shark (Sphyrna zigaena) and the porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) will take some preparation, Parties decided that the entry into force of the inclusion in Appendix II should be delayed by 18 months, until 14 September 2014.
From that time onward, international trade in these species will need to be accompanied by CITES permits confirming that they are harvested sustainably and legally and the trade will also need to be reported to the CITES Secretariat.
The deadline for entering reservations on the new listings of species protected under CITES ended on Wednesday 12 June. Denmark on behalf of Greenland (porbeagle shark), Guyana (all 5 shark species and the manta rays), Japan (all 5 shark species), Iceland (porbeagle shark) and Yemen (hammerhead sharks) have entered specific reservations for some of the five commercially-valuable shark species and the manta rays now included in Appendix II.
China has advised the CITES Secretariat that, while it opposed the inclusion of these shark species in the CITES Appendices at CoP16 and continues to have concerns regarding implementation, in the spirit of international cooperation under CITES, with full respect for the decisions adopted at CoP16, China will apply the CITES rules to these species. Hence it did not enter any reservations.
At CoP16 Brazil announced its intention to host a regional meeting of Parties from the Caribbean and South America to address implementation issues prior to the sharks and rays listings entering into force. Ireland, on behalf of the European Union Member States and Croatia, announced an implementation package of EUR 1.2 million to be given to the CITES Secretariat to assist developing countries with implementation of CITES controls for newly-listed sharks and manta rays, and other marine species.
Discussions are already well underway with Brazil on the regional meeting and with the European Commission regarding how to best deploy the funds they have allocated.
CITES member States have also adopted robust enforcement-related decisions to fight wildlife crime and in particular tackling the elephant and rhino poaching and illegal trade crisis. New guiding principles for making scientific findings; as well as rules for determining the State responsible for issuing documentation for marine species harvested in international waters; assessing the impact of CITES decisions on the livelihoods of rural communities; and addressing potential conflict of interest that could affect members of the CITES scientific committees are also entering into force this week.
Note to Editors:
The new listings, Resolutions and Decisions are all available on CITES website at www.cites.org.  For more information, contact Juan Carlos Vasquez at +41 22 917 8156 or juan.vasquez@cites.org.
About CITES
With 178 Member States, CITES is one of the world's most powerful tools for biodiversity conservation through the regulation of trade in wild fauna and flora. Thousands of species are internationally traded and used by people in their daily lives for food, housing, health care, ecotourism, cosmetics or fashion.
CITES regulates international trade in close to 35,000 species of plants and animals, including their products and derivatives, ensuring their survival in the wild with benefits for the livelihoods of local people and the global environment. The CITES permit system seeks to ensure that international trade in listed species is sustainable, legal and traceable.
CITES was signed in Washington D.C. on 3 March 1973. The 40th anniversary of the Convention was celebrated in March 2013 during the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties held in Bangkok, Thailand, from 3 to 14 March 2013.

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A man-made disaster, say environmentalists

June 20, 2013, 9:08 pm

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IT IS ONE OF THE INDICATION OF NATURE TO MAKE HARMONY WITH HER , BECAUSE , WATER CYCLE , BIO GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE IT IS CONTINUOUS PROCESS , ANTHROPOGENIC  ACTIVITIES HAMPERS NATURAL CYCLE DUE TO GLOBAL WARMING , OZONE DEPLETION , DEFORESTATION , EXCAVATION OF EARTH FOR FUEL- MINERALS DESERTIFICATION , FAST URBANIZATION , THOUSANDS OF ACTIVITIES IN TROPOSPHERIC ZONE AS INDUSTRIALIZATION , AIRCRAFT , IN SEA VESSELS, SHIPS , ON ROAD CRORES OF VEHICLES , MULTISTORY BUILDINGS , LACK OF PROPER GREEN BELT  DEVELOPMENT , ECO TOURISM HAS BECOME ONLY EARNING TOURISM.


JOIN HANDS TO PROTECT OUR MOTHER EARTH   -ENVIRONMENT  FOR FUTURE PROGENY -------------------------Dr. AMAR NATH GIRI

 

 During a recent speech, President Obama said, "This is the global threat of our time." What is that threat?
1) more severe storms
2) famine and floods
3) coastlines that vanish
4) oceans that rise
5) climate change
Could the Uttarakhand tragedy have been avoided, or at least minimised?

There is no simple answer.

Environmentalists describe the death and damage as a man-made disaster while geologists say the extent of destruction could have been far lesser if stricter regulations had been put in place and the authorities equipped to deal with the situation.

Importantly, the events focus attention on the debate on the December 18, 2012 notification of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, which declares the entire watershed around the 135-km stretch between Gaumukh and Uttarakashi, along the Bhagirathi river, as an eco-sensitive zone under the Environment Protection Act, 1986. This, in practice, bans all construction activity in the area. The State government has been opposing it stoutly, arguing that such an order will adversely affect development and the economic progress of the region.

The notification, if implemented, would result in the closure of hydropower projects of 1,743-MW capacity along the Bhagirathi and a ban on mining and construction, especially of hotels and resorts, and land use conversion. Power projects and mining and construction activities are the main causes of preventable environmental degradation. The Uttarakhand Assembly passed a resolution against it, and Chief Minister Vijay Bahuguna met Prime Minister Manmohan Singh last month to urge him to cancel the notification.

The former Deputy Director-General of the Geological Survey of India, V.K. Raina, told The Hindu that natural calamities such as cloudbursts and flash floods could not be prevented, but deaths and damage could be contained if there were laws to regulate construction along the rivers, and authorities were equipped to deal with the situation. “Construction in Uttarakhand is not planned. The owners have taken a calculated risk and paid for it.”

Had India Metrological Department alerted the State government, authorities should have been prepared to deal with the threat, or they would have stopped more people from going to these places. “There seems to be no accountability and no coordination,” he said. “Such things will keep happening in future, and people living in ecologically sensitive areas also have needs which have to be fulfilled…, but there needs to be enough restrictions on the activities, including the movement of pilgrims and tourists.”

Suggesting that the States along the Himalayan ranges reconsider their development models, Sunita Narain of the Centre for Science and Environment, said that while there could not be a blanket ban on development activities in these fragile zones, given the needs of the people, “we need to look at ways of development without destroying natural resources.”

Terming the Uttarakhand tragedy a “man-made disaster,” Ms. Narain said development in the ecologically sensitive areas had to be different from the plains. “We cannot have roads on the Himalayas like the ones on the Alps. The Himalayas are young mountains,” she said. Technology was available for this, and one need not depend on the Border Roads Organisation as it outsourced construction works.

Calling for conservation of ecological heritage, Gopal Krishna of Toxiclinks Alliance said no agency should be allowed to build permanent structures in ecologically fragile zones. “Development fundamentalism, combined with religious tourism, is eroding ecological heritage.” “In the aftermath of these disasters, if lessons are indeed learnt, all ongoing development projects must be reviewed, and their carrying-capacity and cumulative impact on the Himalayan ecosystem should be assessed and the ecological integrity of the Himalayan watershed made non-negotiable.”

Studies conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Kunming and the University of Delhi on the impact of the dams planned in the Himalayan region predicted that “about 1,700 square kilometres of forests would be submerged or damaged by dams and related activities.” “Stage-managed and faulty environmental clearances in India and China contributed to the colossal crisis that is staring us in the face,” Mr. Krishna said.
 http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-manmade-disaster-say-environmentalists/article4834607.ece

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June 21, 2013, 10:29 am

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RESCUE AND RELIEF IN UTTARAKHAND – STATUS UPDATE AS ON 1700 HRS

June 21, 2013, 10:43 am

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RESCUE AND RELIEF IN UTTARAKHAND – STATUS UPDATE AS ON 1700 HRS

Cabinet Secretary chaired a meeting of concerned Secretaries and senior officials from various agencies this evening, to take stock of rescue and relief operations.

MINISTRY OF DEFENCE

The Armed Forces today continued their rescue and relief operations in the worst affected areas of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradeshon awar footing. The present status of aid at 1800 Hrs on 21 June 2013 is as follows:

ASSISTANCE  PROVIDED BY THE ARMY

• Approximately 16,000persons have been rescued so far by Road and Army Helicopters.
• 115Helicopters Sorties have been carried out so far.
• Paratroopers have been dropped at Rudraprayag-Kedarnath.
• Plugging of Breach on Shivpuri Bund at Laksar is under progress.
• Army Aviation is operating in Pithoragarh, Joshimath, Dharchula&Gaucher and approximately 100 Paratroopers inserted in small teams to cut off areas.
• 6650 Kg of relief material provided.

The Army has taken following actions at Pooh Sector in Himachal Pradesh:

• Restoration of BSNL communication.
• Snow/boulder clearance.
• Clearance of helipads.
• Establishment of three Radio detachments at critical Areas.
• Flood monitoring detachments activated at Lepcha, Sumbo, Shipkila & Khab.

ASSISTANCE PROVIDED BY THE AIR FORCE

·         IAF has committed 13  more aircraft to 30 aircraft already carrying out the relief and rescue efforts taking the total number of aircraft to 43 which includes 36 rotary wing aircraft( 23 Mi 17IV/Mi 17 V5, 11 ALH, 01 Cheetah, 01 Mi 26), two C130Js, three AN 32, one AVRO and one IL76.

·         As on today - total of about 185 sorties have been flown since morning inducting 332 rescue workers and evacuating 1357 persons which also included one pilot of a civil aircraft that crashed at Junglejatti near Kedarnath.

·         IAF is also activating landing grounds - Gauchar and Dharasuin Uttarakhand to establish air bridge for chopper movement and plans to operate ALH and Cheetah from Gaucher.

·         A heavylift Mi- 26 has already landed at Gaucher with 30 barrels of fuel and 70 paratroppers.

·         A C130J committed to recce mission to check valley clearance and facilitate further relief and rescue operations is also planned to land at Dharasu.

·         Mi 26 will continue to operate in this area to maintain supply of aviation fuel and rescue work and will also provide helilift to the heavy equipment of BRO for repairs and construction work as well as support construction of temporary helipads for better extraction of those stuck or stranded using small helicopters.  

·         IAF has also started operating detachments at Pithoragarh and Joshimath.

• IAF also dropped 500 Kg food packets and 8000 Kgs air landed
• 96 barrels of fuel positioned at Jolly Grant by two AN 32.
• At Shimla Detachment three shuttles were detailed from Rampur to Sangla.  Three helicopters are operating ex Rampur and  focus is on Changla and Pooh axis.

MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS

In pursuance of announcement of the Prime Minister, GOI has released an amount of Rs. 145.00 crore from SDRF (State Disaster Relief Fund) to the Government of Uttarakhand on 20^th June 2013. 

Home Minister is visiting the state tomorrow.

A total 15257 victims were rescued Kedarnath, Gaurikund, Govindghat, Pandukeswar, Karnaprayag, Badrinath on and Uttarkashi. ITBP teams are carrying out   Rescue and Relief Operation for thousands of yatries stranded in Kedarnath, Gaurikund, Govindghat, Pandukeswar, Karnaprayag , Badrinath on and Uttarkashi.

                   More than 1200 victims have been rescue from Govindghat area and brought to Joshimath. The evacuation will continue tomorrow.

                     ITBP has evacuated all victims from KedarnathMandir area. However, victims from Rambada area are being evacuated on foot to Kedarnath area from where they are being air lifted. Tomorrow, a bigger helipad will be constructed from where Mi-17 helicopters will be able to take off and land. Deployment of these choppers will speed up rescue operations manifold.

Teams of NDRF and ITBP is now searching for victims in nearby areas.. ITBP airlifted 350 victims from Gaurigaon and 275 victims from Rambada. In Kedarnath area, some victims climbed to nearby hills during the flooding. They are being brought down to lower areas from the can be air lifted. Similarly trapped villagers from nearby areas are also coming to lower areas for evacuation.

Today ITBP made a foot track from Gaurikund to Sonprayag and 500 victims were evacuated on foot.

A major breakthrough came on Badrinath axis where more than 10000 people are stranded. ITBP was able to make a rope bridge at, what used to be the Lambagad bridge over the river Alaknanda. One rescue party of the ITBP evacuated about 400 victims from Badrinath on foot, who were brought to Pandukeshwar. A staging camp has been established at Pandukeshwar where these victims will stay for the night where they will be provided food and medical assistance. Tomorrow they will be moved to Joshimath.

Two log bridges were constructed on fast flowing rivulets which were used to rescue 200 villagers stranded in upper reaches of nearby hills.

Carrying relief work at altitude of more than 10000ft in the cold and difficult climatic conditions of Kedarnath ,Govindghat,Ghaganria and Badrinath is very difficult and dangerous. Undeterred by all these difficulties and challenges, ITBP jawans are doing uninterrupted rescue and relief work since morning.

Three battalions and personnel of Mountaineering & Skiing institute are carrying out Rescue and Relief Operation for thousands of yatries stranded in Kedarnath, Gaurikund, Govindghat, Pandukeswar, Karnapyag , Badrinath on and Uttarkashi. Whole route of  Char DhamYatra  connecting Badrinath- Joshimath- Kedarnath-Yamunotri and Gangotri  is badly affected by heavy rain, landslide, food, structural failure etc.

          ITBP also airlifted its medical teams comprising many doctors and medics with sufficient stock of emergency medicines. Victims are being brought to safer places like Guptkashi, Rudrapyag and Gauchar. ITBP is paying more emphasis to providing relief to victims having no shelter and support for survival. Tomorrow, more heli sorties will be utilized to send rescue teams, relief material, food and rescue the victims.

           Thousands of yatries stranded near Ghaghria and GovindGhat, en route to Hemkund Sahib, are being rescued by ITBP and local administration. As roads and tracks are totally washed away, Today mountaineering team of ITBP was employed for rescue operation there. They made a temporary support structure of climbing ropes to bring down the victims stranded there. Hundreds of victims rescued are being accommodated in various shelters in ITBP camp of 1^st Battalion ITBP in Joshimath. More than   600 victims are being accommodated in ITBP Emergency Relief shelter and  Medical Center.

            Jawans of ITBP has vacated their barracks and have   accommodated has been established at ITBP campus in Joshimath.

             In Uttarkashi district, yatris and local population affected by heavy rain, landslide, broken roads, flood and structural collapse are being rescued to safer places. They are being provided food, shelter and medical care by ITBP.

            Thousands of Yatries are stranded at Kedarnath and Badrinath. ITBP and district administration is conducting search and rescue operation. ITBP is providing drinking water, food and medical help to all affected yatris.

             Accumulations of debris at some places are several   feet high and big boulders and broken structures are also lying in it.

           

            These teams are well trained for mountain rescue. They are acclimatized and equipped with specialized   equipments used for relief and rescue work at high altitude mountainous areas. These teams are trained for such types of relief and rescue work as ITBP does most of the search and rescue work in high Himalayas.

                         

MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS

Ø  Minister of Railways, Shri Mallikarjun Kharge gave directions to Railway Board to arrange special trains to evacuate stranded persons from the calamity hit Uttarakhand areas.  The Minister has been reviewing the arrangements regularly with the Railway Board.

Ø  Special trains have been arranged to evacuate stranded persons from the calamity hit Uttarakhand areas. 

Ø  Special Trains have started running from Haridwar.  Yesterday i.e. on 20.6.2013, three specials were run to Lucknow,, Delhi and Ambala respectively.  More specials are being planned as per the requirements.  

Ø  In coordination with Government of Uttarakhand, Indian Railways has decided to carry stranded passengers free of cost to their respective destinations. 

Ø  Railway administration is ensuring that sufficient Empty Coaching Rakes are sent to Haridwar/Dehradun.

Ø  A Task Force has been set up at the level of Railway Board under  Chairman Railway Board, Shri Vinay Mittal to monitor the situation.

Ø  Northern Railway and its Muradabad Division have fully geared up for making appropriate arrangements (Uttarakhand falls mostly under Muradabad Railway Division of Northern Railway). 

Ø  The following Senior officers have been deputed as Special officers in charge of four most crucial points:

I.        Dehradun-Sh. Sanjeev Garg, Chief Commercial Manager/Freight Marketing–Mob.no. 09717630953

II.        Rishikesh -Sh. D. K. Singh, Chief Commercial Manager/Project-Mob.no. – 097171630969

III.        Haridwar -Sh. Hitendra Malhotra, Additional Divisional Railway Manager /Moradabad-Mob.no. 09760534001

IV.        New Delhi -Sh. Vivek Srivastava, Additional Divisional Railway Manager/Delhi-Mob.no. -09717631001.

These Officers are maintaining liaison and co-ordination with the State Civil Authorities and ensuring management and dispersal of passengers by Train services, running of special trains and also ensuring setting up of passenger help booths at these locations to be manned round the clock.

Ø  The following Helpline nos. have been installed:

I.        Haridwar: 09760534054/09760534055

II.        Dehradun: 01352-622131

III.        Rishikesh:01352-434167

Ø  RPF officers with adequate contingent of Inspectors/constables have been deputed at these locations.

Ø  Doctors and paramedical staff in sufficient numbers have been deployed  at these Stations.

Ø  Railways have ensured setting up of additional Booking and Enquiry   Counters at above Locations for handling the additional requirement of Booking, Enquiries and Refund etc.

Ø  Adequate arrangement of Catering facilities and Drinking water has been ensured at these locations.

Ø  Frequent Announcements through the Public Address System regarding status of Trains   and other Passenger related services has been ensured.

MINISTRY OF COMMUNICATIONS AND IT

·   In the affected districts of Chamoli, Rudraprayag and Uttar Kashi, 739 towers are in place, of which 207 are down.

·   They will be made operational in 24 hours subject to access.

·   Emergency services: 100, 101, 102, 108 are all operational. This includes not only BSNL, but also private telecom operators.

·   The Department of Telecom has also issued instructions to all Telcos, that the toll free public utility emergency numbers must be operational and accessible to customers in affected areas by 3pm today.

MINISTRY OF PETROLEUM

Availability of Petroleum Products in flood-affected regions

ATF  -  Aviation Refuellers have been positioned at Rampur, Shimla and Gauchar. 42 refuellings comprising of 36000 litres have already been carried out from these locations between 19th and 20th evening for the helicopters involved in rescue operations.  Refuellers are also on the way to be positioned at Joshimath, Bageshwar, Dharasu and Pithoragarh.  Backup supplies for these refuellers have been arranged from Ambala and Panipat Terminals.  District Administration is providing assistance to reach the refuellers/backup supplies to all destinations due to bad traffic/ road conditions.

LPG - Efforts are being made to supply LPG to the distributors from Haridwar and Haldwani Bottling plants in Uttarakhand.  One truck load has been dispatched on 17th and 18th June 2013 and 2 loads dispatched on 19th June, 2013.  21 truck loads are in transit to the affected markets. Both the above bottling plants are operating normally and all efforts are being made to dispatch loads to the affected markets through open routes in coordination with State Government. LPG cylinders have already started reaching Uttarkashi.

MS/HSD/ SKO- As road connectivity has been restored till Joshimath and Uttarkashi from Rishikesh,   supplies have been released from respective Depots of IOC, HPC and BPC.  Adequate stocks are being maintained at all Retail/SKO Agencies and LPG Godowns.

Advance release of 60 kl of Kerosene Oil against the quarterly allocation for flood/landslide relief in Uttarakhand has been authorised by MOP&NG.

The situation is being closely monitored and efforts being made to attain normalcy at the earliest.

MINISTRY OF CIVIL AVIATION

The Minister for Civil Aviation, Shri Ajit Singh has expressed his deep anguish and sorrow at the huge loss of precious lives in the flash floods in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh. He has directed Air India and Pawan Hans Helicopters to render all assistance to the Uttarakhand government in the search and rescue operation going on in the flood affected areas of the state. He has also directed Air India to operate additional flights from Dehradun to bring stranded pilgrims and also offer concessional fares to the affected people. Pawan Hans has already deployed three helicopters in rescue operation. Shri Ajit Singh has further directed Pawan Hans to deploy additional resources in the rescue operation and coordination with the state government. 

*****

DNM/SC/SH/SK

(Release ID :96699)

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June 21, 2013, 7:49 pm

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PERFORMENCE OF CATALYSTS AMMONIA PLANT -IFFCO KALOL EXPERIENCE

June 21, 2013, 8:10 pm

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Hazards of Nitrogen and Catalyst Handling

June 21, 2013, 10:53 pm

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TEST YOURSELF

1 Whatever its state, the only risk related to nitrogen is suffocation. True -False

2 The smell of nitrogen immediately identifies an oxygen deficient environment.

True /False

3 Testing for flammable gases in pipe s purged with nitrogen does not pose any problems with explosimeters. True /False

4 There is no risk in leaving a bottle of nitrogen in a small room. True /False

5 An air purifying respirator will adequately protect me in an oxygen deficient atmosphere. True /False

6 It is safe to pour liquid nitrogen on myself. True /False

7 Even if I inhale pure nitrogen, I will be safe for a few minutes thanks to the oxygen stored in my blood.

True /False

8 Nitrogen is not the only gas that can cause suffocation. True /False

9 Nitrogen is only used on the site for preparing equipment for maintenance (never for other purposes or in the tank farms ). True /False

10 Unregenerated catalyst can be pyrophoric. True /False

11 Handling, unloading, storage and shipment of unregenerated catalysts is normally carried out under nitrogen cover. True /False

2 Catalyst dust is not a threat to our health and therefore air-line respirators are not required.

True /False

13 Dust masks always provide adequate protection to prevent inhalation of  catalyst particles.

True /False

14 Specialist contractors for inert gas confined space entry projects use conventional SCBA because they are trained underwater divers. True /False

15 Providing the atmosphere is between 19.5% and 23.5% oxygen, it is always safe to enter the confined space. True /False

16 Open manholes are dangerous because technicians are likely to put their  heads inside.

True /False

17 Oxygen deficient atmospheres can be created outside a confined space.

True /False

18 An occupational health risk assessment is required prior to any possible exposure to catalyst, to protect the technicians and the environment from harmful effects. True /False

19 Conventional breathing apparatus normally found in refineries provides adequate protection for working in an inert / nitrogen-filled confined space. True /False

20 All air compressors provide the quality of air necessary for breathing apparatus. True /False

HAZARDS OF NITROGEN AND CATALYST HANDLING

June 21, 2013, 11:52 pm

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"It should not be necessary for each generation to

rediscover principles of process safety which the

generation before discovered.We must learn from theexperience of others ratherthan learn the hard way. Wemust pass on to the nextgeneration a record of what we have learned."

-

Jesse C. DUCOMMUN

3

HAZARDS OF NITROGEN AND

CATALYST HANDLING

Contents

1.

SAFE USE OF NITROGEN......................................................................4

1.1 In

troducti

on ........................................................................................................4

1.2 Properties

of Nitrogen ........................................................................................5

1.3 Uses and Haza

rds of Nit

rogen...........................................................................6

1.4 Hazards

of Open M

anholes ...............................................................................8

1.5 Hazards of Tem

porary Confi

ned Spaces ........................................................14

1.6 Hazards of Pipi

ng Under Nitr

ogen Purge ........................................................17

1.7 Hazards of Conf

using Nitrogen

with Air...........................................................18

1.8 Hazards of

Trapped Pre

ssure..........................................................................20

1.9 Hazards of

Liquid Ni

trogen ..............................................................................22

1.10 Hazards of Explosimeter

Use in Nitrogen

Atmospheres .................................23

1.11 General Advice

and Safe Prac

tices .................................................................25

2.

SAFE HANDLING OF CATALYST ........................................................27

2.1 Properties

of Catalysts.....................................................................................27

2.2 Fire

Hazards ....................................................................................................28

2.3 Health

Hazards ................................................................................................32

2.4 Spent

Catalyst..................................................................................................33

2.5 Nicke

l Carbonyl................................................................................................34

2.6 Crushi

ng Hazards ............................................................................................35

2.7 Other Hazards associ

ated with Catalyst

Handling ..........................................36

2.8 Catal

yst Unl

oading...........................................................................................37

2.9 Catal

yst Labe

lling.............................................................................................38

2.10 Catalyst

Disposal .............................................................................................38

2.11 Respiratory and Protective

Equipment R

equirements.....................................39

2.12 Catalyst Specialist Contractors

for Inert Gas / Nit

rogen Reactors ..................45

3.

Points to Remember for Tool Box Meetings ......................................50

4.

Test Yourself .........................................................................................56

---

Is it harmful to breathe 100-percent oxygen?

June 22, 2013, 12:27 am

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We breathe air that is 21 percent oxygen, and we require oxygen to live. So you might think that breathing 100 percent oxygen would be good for us -- but actually it can be harmful. So, the short answer is, pure oxygen is generally bad, and sometimes toxic. To understand why, you need to go into some detail …
 

Your lungs are basically a long series of tubes that branch out from your nose and mouth (from trachea to bronchi to bronchioles) and end in little thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. Think of soap bubbles on the end of a straw, and you'll understand alveoli. Surrounding each alveolus are small, thin-walled blood vessels, called pulmonary capillaries. Between the capillaries and the alveolus is a thin wall (about 0.5 microns thick) through which various gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen) pass.
When you inhale, the alveoli fill with this air. Because the oxygen concentration is high in the alveoli and low in the blood entering the pulmonary capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the air into the blood. Likewise, because the concentration of carbon dioxide is higher in the blood that's entering the capillaries than it is in the alveolar air, carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the alveoli. The nitrogen concentration in the blood and the alveolar air is about the same. The gases exchange across the alveolar wall and the air inside the alveoli becomes depleted of oxygen and rich in carbon dioxide. When you exhale, you breathe out this carbon dioxide enriched, oxygen-poor air.

Attraction of Oxygen to Water-Oxygen is constantly entering and leaving water The amount of surface area between the water and the air will also determine the rate of oxygen exchange.

June 22, 2013, 12:31 am

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Attraction of Oxygen to Water

Oxygen Concentration

Oxygen is constantly entering and leaving water, but there is a certain amount of oxygen in water at all times.  This is because water has a natural attraction to oxygen.  When oxygen comes in contact with the surface of water, the oxygen tends to enter the water, becoming dissolved oxygen.  

The amount of attraction between oxygen and water depends on the amount of oxygen already in the water.  If there is very little oxygen in water, then the water is very attractive to oxygen.  But when water has a high concentration of DO, then the water is saturated, meaning that the water contains as much oxygen as it can hold.  Saturated water is not very attractive to oxygen.  

Water's attractiveness to oxygen also depends on the concentration of oxygen in the air coming in contact with the water.  The higher the concentration of oxygen in the air, the greater the attraction of the oxygen to the water.  

You can think of an oxygen molecule as a person who likes to live far away from other people.  If this person is looking for a place to live, they will move into the area with the lowest population.  Oxygen molecules do the same thing.  If the air is crowded with oxygen but the water is not, the oxygen will move into the water.  If the water is crowded with oxygen but the air is not, then the oxygen will move into the air.  

The greater the difference between the oxygen concentration in the air and the dissolved oxygen concentration in the water, the faster the oxygen will move into the water.  So if there is very little oxygen in the water, oxygen will dissolve into the water very quickly.   

This process of oxygen moving from an area with a high oxygen concentration to an area with a low oxygen concentration is known as diffusion.

Other Factors

Concentration of oxygen in the air and water are not the only factors which determine how much oxygen will be dissolved in water.  The amount of surface area between the water and the air will also determine the rate of oxygen exchange.  A bigger surface area, as when water runs over rocks in a rapids, will allow more oxygen to enter the water.  

Water temperature is also very important in determining the amount of oxygen which will become dissolved in water.  As you can see in the graph above, cold water is able to hold more oxygen than warm water.  

Foreign substances in water, such as salt or sugar, can also affect water's affinity for oxygen.

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of microscopic forms of life, such as bacteria.  In microbiology, organisms can be divided up based on the type of oxygen they require for life.  The three categories are aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative.

Water, the home of most bacteria, contains oxygen in two forms.  The first form, free oxygen, is the most readily available form.  Free oxygen is basically the same as dissolved oxygen - oxygen from the atmosphere which has become dissolved in water.

Aerobic bacteria require free oxygen in order to survive.

Oxygen can also be found in the water in another form.  Food and even water itself contain oxygen, but this oxygen is tightly bound to the food and water.  As you can see in the picture above, each molecule of water contains one oxygen molecule (O) and two hydrogen molecules (H).  The oxygen can be ripped out of the water molecule by anaerobic bacteria, but it takes much more energy to break apart food and water in search of oxygen than it does to simply use free oxygen.  Since anaerobic bacteria use so much of their time and energy scrounging for oxygen, they take longer to digest organic matter in water.  Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen used by microorganisms.

The third type of microorganisms, those which are facultative, have properties of both aerobic and anaerobic organisms.  They can live with or without free oxygen. When the oxygen content of water is high, facultative bacteria consume food very quickly using the free oxygen in the water.  In low oxygen concentrations, facultative bacteria are still able to consume organic material, although they do so much more slowly.  

Surface Area and Mass

Microorganisms take in oxygen through their surfaces.  Just as oxygen from the air can diffuse into water through the water's surface, oxygen enters a bacteria through its outer surface.  The larger the surface, the more oxygen the bacteria is able to take in.  

A bacteria's oxygen requirement, how much oxygen it needs to survive, does not depend on the surface area though. The oxygen requirement depends upon the mass, or bulk, of the organism.  Bacteria of the same mass and metabolism have about the same oxygen requirement.  The bigger the bacteria, the more oxygen it needs to survive.  

The mass to surface area ratio is an important concept in a small microorganism:

Surface Area
Mass

You may remember that we discussed the relationship between surface area and volume in Lesson 4 when discussing aerators.  Small water droplets had a large surface area to volume ratio (which you can think of as a surface area to mass ratio.)  As a result, more air was able to enter these small water droplets.  Larger water droplets had a lower surface area to volume ratio, so less air was able to enter the larger droplets.

Oxygen in water is known as dissolved oxygen or DO.  In nature, oxygen enters water when water runs over rocks and creates tremendous amounts of surface area.  The high surface area allows oxygen to transfer from the air into the water very quickly.  

The same concept applies to the oxygen uptake by bacteria.  Small bacteria have a large surface area to mass ratio, so they are able to take up a lot of oxygen compared to how much oxygen they need to survive.  Large bacteria, in contrast, have a small surface area to mass ratio.  So these large bacteria take up a lot less oxygen compared to how much oxygen they use up in their daily life.  

Since large microorganisms have a harder time taking up enough oxygen to survive, they have to live in water with a high oxygen concentration.  If the DO content of water drops below a certain point, only the smaller microorganisms will be able to survive.

Humans

Of course, larger organisms also require oxygen to survive. In humans, we breathe in oxygen, which descends to our lungs, enters the blood, and then moves throughout the body. The purpose of our lungs is to move oxygen out of the air we breathe and into our blood.  In order to make oxygen flow quickly from air to blood, the lungs are divided up so that they have a very large surface area.  

Like oxygen moving into water, oxygen naturally flows into blood through the process of diffusion.  Blood is composed of plasma (which is a liquid base) and red blood cells.  The red blood cells contain a molecule known as hemoglobin which binds to oxygen and pulls it along as the blood flows from the lungs to the rest of the body.  

The amount of oxygen in the air is very important to us.  The normal oxygen content of the air is about 21% and as the oxygen content raises or lowers, our bodies begin to have problems.  When the oxygen concentration is less than 16.5%, humans blackout.  When concentrations rise above 40%, toxic oxygen radicals are formed in the body.  These radicals damage cell structure and function in a process known as oxygen toxicity.  Both oxygen toxicity and extremely low oxygen content in the air can lead to death. Thus, our lives are dependent on oxygen and are greatly affected by the concentration thereof.

Fish

Just as the oxygen content of the air in which we live is important to humans, the oxygen content of water is important to fish and other organisms living in water.  Fish take up oxygen from the water using their gills.  Fish with larger gills compared to their body size are like bacteria with a large surface area to mass ratio - these fish can take up enough oxygen to survive even in water with a low oxygen content. 

A fish's metabolism also helps determine the amount of oxygen which a fish needs to survive.  Fish with a high metabolism are fast-moving but also require a great deal of oxygen to survive.  Fish with a slow metabolism are more sluggish and require less oxygen.

Carp and trout are examples of the two extremes of fish oxygen requirements.  Trout have a small gill area and a high metabolism, so they only live in the ocean and in fast-moving streams where the oxygen levels are high.  Carp, in contrast, have a small gill area and a slower metabolism, so they can withstand low levels of oxygen and live in small lakes and ponds.

In order to maintain the diversity of life in streams, the oxygen content of water discharged from wastewater treatment plants is monitored.  Some fish can live with low DO levels of 3 to 4 milligrams per liter, but the National Pollution Elimination Discharge System (NPDES) requires that all discharge from sewage treatment plants must have a DO level of at least 5 milligrams per liter so that organisms with high oxygen requirements can also survive.  To meet this standard, most wastewater treatment plants must aerate the water before discharge.  Step aeration is the most common type of aeration used in wastewater treatment plants.

Wastewater treatment plants must also ensure that organic matter is removed from the water in the plant.  If water containing organic matter is released into streams and rivers, then bacteria will quickly begin to metabolize the organic matter, using up the water's oxygen in the process.  In this way, a wastewater treatment plant could indirectly cause the DO content of water to drop to a dangerous level.

Fall Protection

June 22, 2013, 4:39 am

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Fall Protection highlights the need for fall protection systems in the workplace. With dramatic footage of accidents and computer animation, this video outlines the steps to develop safe practices when working from heights.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N59eJoYEW54&feature=player_embedded

OVERHEAD CRANE SAFETY TIPS

June 22, 2013, 4:48 am

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Overhead cranes are generally used for indoor hoisting activities. They are often installed for specific repetitive tasks. The capacity of these cranes is wide ranging. Contractors may use them for specialized hoisting operations such as removing or installing major plant equipment.
Safe operation of overhead cranes requires operators to have the knowledge and competence to employ safe rigging practices. The rigger must rig the load to ensure its stability when lifted.

The following points highlight safety tips for overhead crane operation.

• Before use, ensure the crane is suitable for the planned hoisting task(s). Confirm it has appropriate travel, lift, and capacity.
• Visually and physically inspect the crane before use. Check for damage, wear, and proper operation of all functions.
• Confirm the load weight. Check the capacity of all equipment including the hardware, rope, and slings.
  Do not exceed these capacities.
• Select the right sling for each lift. Inspect slings and other rigging hardware before use for wear, stretch, or other damage. Do not use damaged or defective slings. Use softeners around sharp corners. Do not splice broken slings.
• When communicating with a crane operator, use clear agreed-upon signals. Except for the stop signal, the crane operator should follow instructions from only one person – a designated signaller. Where a wired or remote controller is used, the operator should become familiar with all of its functions before lifting the load.
• Warn all people in the load lift area before starting the lift. Ensure that the path of the load is clear of persons and obstructions. Do not lift loads over anyone.Centre the crane hoist over the load before hoisting to prevent swinging of the load.
• Slide the sling fully onto the hoisting hook and ensure the safety catch is closed. Do not load the hook tip or hammer a sling into place.
• Secure unused sling legs. Do not drag slings or leave loose materials on a load being hoisted.
• Keep hands and fingers from being trapped when slack is taken out of a sling. Step away before the lift is made.

• Caution

  Ensure that the load is free to move. If a load is stuck and the crane begins or continues to lift, it may reach its full capacity quickly. There may be little or no warning of this condition and rigging components may fail.
• Move the load and controls smoothly. Minimize load swing.
• Walk ahead of the load during travel and warn people to keep clear. Use a tag line to prevent rotation or other uncontrolled motion. Raise the load only as high as necessary to clear objects. Do not ride on hook or load.
• Set loads down on blocking, never directly on a sling. Do not pull or push loads out from under the hoist.
• Do not leave the load (or the crane) unattended while the load is suspended.
• Where crane operation by other personnel must be restricted, employ lockout and tagging procedures.
• Store slings off the floor in a clean, dry location on hooks or racks. Do not leave slings, accessories, or blocking lying on the floor.

Scaffold Safety -2 million workers frequently use scaffolding in the construction field.

June 22, 2013, 4:53 am

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-0UVe2yRzY
It is estimated that over 2 million workers frequently use scaffolding in the construction field. Statistics show that the number of injuries from scaffold related accidents is an astounding 4,500 more a year and deaths that occur from such accidents average more than 60 per year. Proper training and protection for all employees that work with or on scaffolds is vital.