How to Select Safety Committee Members

April 15, 2013, 9:41 am

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How to Select Safety Committee Members

Tuesday, April 09, 2013 3:00 AM
by Chris Kilbourne

What makes a successful safety committee member? Find out.

Safety committee members must:

• Set a good example. Committee members must set a good example! Committee members must be above average in their safe work habits and their positive attitude about safety.

• Be visible. Names of safety committee members should be posted prominently in their departments. They are the strong right hand to supervisors. Some companies also give safety committee badges to identify their committee members.

• Hold regular meetings. Safety committees must meet formally (usually at least once a month, sometimes biweekly).

• Serve as a sounding board for safety and health activities. Positive management groups ask their safety committees to be sounding boards on proposals for new safety rules, developing JHA changes or additions to personal protective equipment, participate in safety fairs and safety victory days.

Job Description of Effective Committee Member

A Toronto packaging manufacturer encountered such confusion among its safety committee members that it developed an orientation program for newly appointed safety committee members, including a Job Description of an Effective Safety Committee Member. That outline of duties reads like this:

Primary Function

To give your best efforts to make the department free from accidents and occupational health problems.

Duties

Work safely yourself-set the example in the department.

• Attend and actively participate in safety committee meetings when on day or second shift. If you are on third shift, notify your supervisor so that your alternate can attend.
• Work with your supervisor to eliminate hazardous conditions and unsafe work practices in the department. Speak to your fellow employees if you believe that they are engaged in an unsafe work practice; report things which you feel you can't handle to your supervisor for further action.
• Investigate with your supervisor recordable case injuries that occur in your department. Participate in Plant Review Committee activities on lost workday case accidents or industrial illnesses in your department.
• Listen to employee suggestions about safety and bring those that appear to have merit to the department supervisor for review.
• Coordinate with your alternate to conduct department safety inspections in the first week of each month, using the pre-printed checklist as your guide. Each quarter participate with a plant management member in a facility wide safety audit.

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How to Make the Most of Safety Committees

April 15, 2013, 9:49 am

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How to Make the Most of Safety Committees

Monday, April 08, 2013 3:00 AM
by Chris Kilbourne

If you have a safety committee or are thinking of starting one, you should watch out for some missteps that can derail your committee's effectiveness. Here's how to avoid a few of them.

Don't turn it into the safety police: While you may have a few employees who enjoy "bossing" people around when it comes to safety, most do not. Your safety committee generally will not have the authority to enforce safety policy, so essentially you're asking them to find safety violations and rat out their fellow employees to supervisors who can actually enforce policy. If you use your safety committee to police the safety activities of other employees, you'll find that your pool of volunteers will shrink quickly.
Don't let it wander aimlessly: Your committee needs to know what its purpose is and what tools and resources it has at its disposal to get anything done. You can accomplish this by either working collaboratively with the committee or handing it a prewritten set of guidelines.
Don't forget to ask why they're there: Your safety committee members joined the committee for a reason (assuming they weren't simply assigned to it). To get the most from your committee, you should ask all the members why they are there and what they'd like to accomplish during their tenure.
Don't forget to recognize them: Your safety committee members are putting time and effort into the safety program-—usually above and beyond their fellow employees. Don't let them sit in the shadows going unrecognized. Recognition can include refreshments at their meetings, a special lunch out, or a shout-out at an employee meeting. A note here: If you choose to recognize the committee in some public way, be sure you recognize each member and not simply "the safety committee." Let the other employees know who the individuals on the safety committee are.
Don't sell them short: Often employers don't take full advantage of the skills employees have that aren't directly related to their jobs. Find out which skills and passions your safety committee members have and tap them to accomplish things in your safety program (for example, developing training sessions or creating organized systems). You will likely be amazed at the resources you have sitting around the table.

Get the Most from Your Committee

A well-run safety committee can give you a peer-driven review of safe work habits, as well as additional insight into illness and accident investigations. And when you enhance your employees' safety IQ, they become fully invested in minimizing the risk of citations, fines, and workers' comp awards.
Safety committees:

• Should consist of both management and hourly employees.
  
• Can help review and update safety programs and safe work practices.
  
• Should review accident investigations to look for other potential causal factors (i.e., workplace hazards) and to recommend corrective actions.
  
• Could be involved with reviewing safety suggestions and recommending corrective action.
  
• Could also be used as a pipeline for employees to report unsafe working conditions or unsafe work practices. Safety committee members can then bring these concerns to the committee and then to management.

7.8-magnitude earthquake hits near Iran-Pakistan

April 16, 2013, 4:49 am

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A 7.8-magnitude earthquake hit a region near the Iran-Pakistan border today, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
 
The earthquake on Tuesday comes less than a week after a quake in Iran killed at least 37 people.
There were no immediate reports of injuries in the latest earthquake, which the USGS pegged at a depth of 15.2 kilometres, but it was felt as far away as New Delhi and the Gulf cities of Dubai and Bahrain.
Across the Gulf, highrise buildings swayed and officials ordered evacuations. Dubai has the world's tallest tower, the 828-metre Burj Khalifa. Last week's 6.1-magnitude quake hit about 96 kilometres southeast of Bushehr, the site of Iran's reactor.

Seismologists say a major earthquake has struck a region near the Iran-Pakistan border, less than a week after a quake in Iran killed at least 37 people.

The U.S. Geological Survey says the 7.8 quake struck the slightly populated region. There were no immediate reports of injuries, but the quake was felt as far away as New Delhi and Gulf cities of Dubai and Bahrain. The USGS report says Tuesday’s quake was at a depth of 15.2 kilometres.

Across the Gulf, high-rise buildings swayed and officials ordered evacuations.

Last week, a deadly 6.1 magnitude quake about 96 kilometers (60 miles) southeast of Bushehr, the site of Iran’s reactor.

Strong Earthquake Is Felt Across Wide Area of Asia

TEHRAN — A powerful earthquake was felt in several countries in Asia on Tuesday, rocking buildings in the Indian capital of New Delhi, sending panicked resident of Karachi, Pakistan, fleeing into the streets and striking with unusually powerful force in Iran. Iranian officials said they expected hundreds of deaths.

The earthquake measured 7.8 on the Richter scale and its epicenter was in Khash, Iran, near Iran’s border with Pakistan, the U.S. Geological Survey said. The quake was felt as far away as the Persian Gulf states, according to Reuters.

An Iranian government official quoted by Reuters said that he expected hundreds of deaths from the quake.

‘'It was the biggest earthquake in Iran in 40 years and we are expecting hundreds of dead,'’ said the official, who spoke on condition of anonymity.

In New Delhi, which is periodically shaken by temblors, the distant quake could be felt through the city, as buildings shook for more than 10 seconds and, in some areas, frightened people ran into the streets. No injuries were reported, nor were there any early reports of property damage in the Indian capital.

In Karachi, the southern port city in Pakistan, local television broadcast images of people standing out on the streets after urgently vacating the high-rise buildings of the city. Strong tremors were felt most strongly in southern and central parts of Pakistan.

“It seems as if the buildings will fall any minute,” an unidentified man in Karachi told GEO News, a private television news network. But there were no reports of any casualties yet.

The USGS reported that the earthquake had a depth of 9.7 miles. Such deep quakes are rare and typically have greater destructive capability.

Jim Yardley contributed reporting from New Delhi, Salman Masood from Islamabad, Pakistan, and Gerry Mullany from Hong Kong.



5.33 pm: Five also reported killed in Kharan district, Pakistan
The toll from the deadly 7.8 earthquake that struck Iran is also being felt in Pakistan. PTI Pakistan correspondent Rezaul Hasan Laskar tweeted that state media channels were reporting five deaths in Pakistan’s Kharan district.
This is in addition to the 40 people said to have been killed in Iran.
Kharan district is located in Pakistan’s Balochistan province. Interestingly, Pakistan’s second nuclear test was performed in the Kharan desert on 30 May, 1998.
5.22 pm: Power, networks down in most of Baluchistan
Iranian State television has reported that power and communication systems are down in most of Sistan and Baluchistan province after the quake. And in case you were wondering about Iran’s nuclear facilities, it turns out that they will not face the same fate as Japan’s nuclear plant.
Reuters reported that the Russian company that built Iran’s Busehr nuclear power plant have confirmed that the plant is fine.
5.09 pm: Iranian television say at least 40 are dead
Times Now has just reported that Iranian television reports are putting the number of dead at around 40. Iran’s Press TV reportedly made the claim. At 7.8, the quake is the deadliest to hit the country
For a list of all the quakes to hit Iran,
Press TV gave no further details on the extent of damage in the sparsely populated areas.
Iran’s seismological center said the 7.5 magnitude earthquake was centered near Saravan, a sparsely populated area about 48 kilometers from the Pakistani border. The US Geological Survey put the preliminary magnitude at 7.8 and at a depth of 15.2 kilometers.
The quake struck less than a week after a 6.1 magnitude quake hit near Bushehr, on Iran’s Persian Gulf coast, killing at least 37 people.
5.02 pm: Iranian officials expecting ‘hundreds of dead’, reports Reuters
The Reuters news agency has quoted an unnamed Iranian official as saying hundreds of dead are expected from the quake near Khash. ”It was the biggest earthquake in Iran in 40 years and we are expecting hundreds of dead,” said the official, who spoke on condition of anonymity.
4.52 pm: City of Khash, Iran reportedly worst affected by quake
We’re still not getting many reports from near the epicentre of the quake, but reports indicate that the Iranian city of Khash, is likely to be the worst affected. According to the European Mediterranean seismological centre.
The US Geological Survey said the quake hit at 5.44 a.m. ET at a depth of 15.2 km (9.4 miles). The epicenter was in southeast Iran in an area of mountains and desert, reported Reuters.
It was located 201 km (125 miles) southeast of the Iranian city of Zahedan and 250 km northwest of Turbat in Pakistan, USGS said.
4.48 pm: UGSC graphic of Iran earthquake
The UGSC has mapped out the effects of the Iran earthquake, showing the severity of the impact in various regions. Check out the graphic below:

4.38 pm: Epicentre of quake confirmed to be Taftan, Iran
The latest reports coming in, put the epicentre of the quake as Taftan, Iran.
Taftan is an area located in Chaghi District, Balochistan, Pakistan. It is Pakistan’s only legal official border crossing into Iran.
There is also an active stratovolcano called Taftan in southeastern Iran situated in the Sistan and Baluchestan province. At nearly 4,000 metres above sea level, it is the highest mountain in southeastern Iran. The nearest city is Khash.
Still no details about the magnitude of damage or loss to life, if any.
4.30 pm: Massive earthquake hits Iran, tremors felt in Delhi, North India
A massive earthquake believed to have occurred on the Iran-Pakistan border has caused tremors in Delhi, the National Capital Region and other states in North India.

AP

The US Geological Survey said that an earthquake of magnitude 8 on the Richter scale had been recorded with its epicentre in Iran. It is unclear exactly where in Iran the quake has occurred.
Tremors were also felt across the Middle East and Gulf region.
Readers tweeted in to Firstpost from various states in north India to inform us about

KARACHI: Severe earthquake jolted parts of the country including Karachi, Hyderabad, Quetta, Abbottabad, Islamabad, Lahore Tuesday, Geo News reported.

Tremors were felt across Pakistan, India, Dubai, Sharjah Ajman and other areas. The Met Office told that the intensity stood at 7.8 while the origin was Pakistan-Iran border area.

According to unconfirmed reports five people have been killed in Panjgor in Balochistan.

US Geological Survey (UGSS) said the tremor hit at 10:44 GMT at a depth of 15.2 km. The epicenter was in southeast Iran.

It was located 201 km (125 miles) southeast of the Iranian city of Zahedan and 250 km northwest of Turbat in Pakistan.

People also evacuated shaking buildings in Qatar and Dubai, residents said.

TEHRAN: Iranian state TV says at least 40 people have been killed by a major earthquake near the Iran-Pakistan border.

Press TV gave no further details on the extent of damage in the sparsely populated areas.

But the quake shook buildings as far away as New Delhi and Gulf cities of Dubai and Bahrain.

Iran's seismological center said the 7.5 magnitude earthquake was centered near Saravan, a sparsely populated area about 48 kilometers (26 miles) from the Pakistani border.

The US Geological Survey put the preliminary magnitude at 7.8 and at a depth of 15.2 kilometers (nine miles).

The quake struck less than a week after a 6.1 magnitude quake hit near Bushehr, on Iran's Persian Gulf coast, killing at least 37 people. (AP)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=Ebo_jf3H_sA

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HOW TO CLEAN THE LUNGS IN 3 DAYS~

April 16, 2013, 10:17 pm

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HOW TO CLEAN THE LUNGS IN 3 DAYS~

Drinking 300 milliliters of juice of grapefruit in the snack. If you don't like the taste of the juice, mix it with a bottle of mineral water or replace it with pineapple juice. These juices contain natural antioxidants that promote a healthy respiratory system.

Drinking 300 milliliters of pure carrot juice between breakfast and lunch. Carrot juice will help alkalize your blood during the 3 days of cleaning.

You have to drink 400 milliliters of a potassium-rich juice with lunch. Potassium is a powerful agent that acts as a tonic for cleaning when ingested in liquid form. It squeezed carrot, celery, spinach, parsley. A true disgust that changes your life.

400 Milliliters of cranberry juice drink before bedtime. It helps to fight bacteria in the lungs that can cause infections. Blueberries are powerful antioxidants.

Care of the body and exercise
A hot bath for 20 minutes every day. It is important to allow the body to lose toxins through perspiration as much as possible.

Once the day walks brisk. Walking promotes healthy breathing. As you walk, you focus on breathing slowly and fully. It keeps the pace.

Place 5 to 10 drops of eucalyptus in hot water. Then you put a dry towel on the back of the head and inhale the steam until the water is no longer hot. The properties of oil and steam can help loosen the mucus.

Note~Make sure ths remedy wont have negative effect at ur current medical condition what u might have...!

If u are taking cholesterol or other medication dont take grape juice..!

US: Explosion at a fertilizer plant in Texas, Some 60 to 70 people were killed in the blast,

April 17, 2013, 7:52 pm

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 - A massive explosion ripped through a fertilizer plant in the town of West, Texas, Wednesday night, sending scores of injured to area hospitals, sparking fires and triggering evacuations.

WHAT'S NEW

-- "It was like a nuclear bomb went off," West Mayor Tommy Muska said.

-- Some 10 to 15 buildings have been "totally demolished" and "probably 50 homes (were) heavily damaged," said George Smith, community emergency medical services director.

-- The fertilizer plant was near an apartment complex and a nursing home, authorities said.

-- Some people might be trapped in collapsed buildings, Smith said.

-- "I expect there's going to be many fatalities and many more injured people," he added.

-- State troopers in gas masks set up roadblocks, waving away cars coming off the highway

Waco: Authorities say an explosion at a fertilizer plant near Waco, Texas, has injured several people. A dispatcher with the West, Texas, Fire Department says the explosion happened on Wednesday night at a fertilizer plant in the community north of Waco. She says any casualties would be taken to hospitals in Waco.
Gayle Scarbrough, a spokeswoman for the Department of Public Safety in Waco, told television station KWTX that DPS troopers have been transporting the injured to hospitals in their patrol cars. She says six helicopters were also en route.''

KWTX reports that the explosion at West Fertilizer was reported at around 7:50 pm (local time) in a frantic call from the scene.
 (Reuters) - Hundreds of people were likely injured on Wednesday in an explosion at a fertilizer plant, a spokesman for the Texas Department of Public Safety told Reuters.

 
(CNN) -- An explosion ripped through a fertilizer plant Wednesday night in West Texas, causing dozens of injuries, officials said.

A hospital in Waco, Texas, has been told to anticipate 100 injured people coming in from the fertilizer plant area, an official at the medical facility said. Glenn Robinson, CEO of Hillcrest Hospital, said a field triage station was being set up on a football field near the plant some 18 miles north of Waco after the Wednesday night explosion.

"We have had a steady flow of patients coming in by ambulance as well as by private vehicles," Robinson told CNN's Anderson Cooper. He said more than a dozen injured people had been brought in by ambulances and "more than 20 -- that number is continuing to climb -- by private vehicle."

A photo after the explosion -- which reportedly happened around 7:50 p.m. (8:50 p.m. ET) -- showed a huge plume of smoke rising high into the air.

The West Fertilizer Plant is located just north of Waco. A school and a nursing home are among the buildings near the plant, CNN affiliate KWTX reported.

Senator Brian Birdwell said he was aware of the explosion and trying to get more information, a spokesman said.

"I stand ready to assist with any and all state resources that might aid the affected area," Birdwell said in a written statement.

Tommy Alford, who works in a convenience store about three miles from the plant, told CNN that several volunteer firefighters were at the store when they spotted smoke.

Alford said the firefighters headed toward the scene and then between five and 10 minutes later, he heard a massive explosion.

Hazardous material teams were being rushed to the scene, an emergency management official said.

Updated (10:52 p.m.): Several homes are on fire, and residents of a nearby retirement home are trapped inside after an explosion at a fertilizer plant exploded in West, Texas, a small town near Waco. The cause of the explosion and extent of the damage is unclear, but the local Department of Public Safety says that several people are severely injured. The explosion could be felt as far away as Dallas, which is nearly 100 miles away. (Scroll to the bottom of this post for a live feed from the local NBC affiliate.)
Witnesses nearby reported seeing a massive fireball rise from the site of the plant. It's all pretty scary for those nearby. "I said, 'This thing is going to blow' ... and I told my mom and dad to get in the car," one witness told the Waco Tribune. "I was standing next to my car with my fiancee, waiting for my parents to come out and [the plant] exploded. It knocked us into the car... Every house within about four blocks is blown apart."
Once again, little is known about the incident. A hazmat team and firefighters had been dispatched to the fertilizer plant after reports of a fire. Apparently the explosion occurred after they arrived, and several firefighters were injured. "There's nothing I can tell you other than that we've had an explosion," the West, Texas Fire Department told the press. "There are injuries, casualties, it's terrible." The CEO of the local Hillcrest Hospital said that they anticipate about 100 injured people.
With the recent terror attack in Boston, an explosion like this is certainly unsettling. But again, we don't yet know what caused the explosion, so don't jump to any conclusions. It is worth noting that this week is the 20th anniversary of the end of the deadly siege in Waco. This is a developing story, and we'll update you with new information as it flows in.

Image via Instagram / andybartee
 
Image via Twitter / ReidGolson
Waco Tribune reporter Kirsten Crow has been live tweeting from the scene and says that the injured are being treated on the local football field.

http://www.news.com.au/world-news/explosion-at-fertiliser-plant-near-waco-texas/story-fndir2ev-1226623333230

West fertilizer plant explosion Texas, U.S.An industrial accident

April 18, 2013, 8:38 pm

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West fertilizer plant explosion

West fertilizer plant explosion
Date	April 17, 2013
Time	7:50 p.m. CDT (UTC−05:00)
Location	West Fertilizer Co., 1471 Jerry Mashek Drive, West, Texas, U.S.
Coordinates	31.816°N 97.088°WCoordinates: 31.816°N 97.088°W
Deaths	5 to 15[
Injuries	More than 179 hospitalized
Property damage	60–80 homes destroyed, 50–75 homes damaged, 50-unit apartment building destroyed

Map of West, Texas

On April 17, 2013, an explosion occurred at approximately 7:50 p.m. CDT(00:50 UTC, April 18) at the West Fertilizer Company plant in West, Texas, 18 miles north of Waco, Texas. Early media reports indicated mass damage to buildings and heavy casualties. It is not known what caused the blast. The explosion killed as many as 15 people and injured more than 160 others.

According to a witness quoted in the The Dallas Morning News, the plant first caught fire, then exploded as firefighters were attempting to douse the flames.^[

The plant is owned by Adair Grain Incorporated. Adair received an air quality permit as a fertilizer mixing and storage facilty from the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality in December 2006, issued after Adair was investigated for failure to secure a permit, when a neighbor complained about an ammonia smell coming from the plant. Adair reportedly stored 54,000 pounds (27 short tons; 24 t) of anhydrous ammonia, which, along with nitric acid, is used to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer, pesticide, and rodenticide.^[

Contents 1 Aftermath 2 Reaction

Aftermath

West Mayor Tommy Muska told the Waco Tribune-Herald that as of late evening, April 17, six or seven volunteer firefighters from the city were unaccounted for.^[ West EMS Director Dr. George Smith, himself injured, stated that he believes at least two emergency responders were killed.

A local middle school, West Middle School, located next to the plant, was reported to be wrecked by the blast. Other buildings in the immediate area sustained "serious damage". Up to 80 buildings near the plant were either leveled or heavily damaged. A neighboring 50-unit two-story apartment building was destroyed. Patients were evacuated from the nearby West Rest Haven nursing home.

Over 100 people were reported to be injured in the blast and were originally transported to a triage centerset up at West High School's football field. It was later moved to a community center due to its proximity to the still-burning fertilizer plant. Hillcrest Baptist Medical Center in Waco received over 40 injured for treatment.  Patients were also admitted to Providence Healthcare Network in Waco, Parkland Memorial Hospital in Dallas, and Scott and White Memorial Hospital in Temple.

"We do have confirmed fatalities," Texas Department of Public Safety spokesman D.L. Wilson said at a midnight news conference. "We have a tremendous amount of injuries... over 100 injuries at this time." Wilson did not confirm or deny an earlier report that the number of deaths could be in the range of 60 to 70. He said the blast zone was "just like theMurrah Building in Oklahoma City," and that there were "50 to 75" homes and businesses damaged.Sergeant William Patrick Swanton of the Waco Police Department said the operation has gone into a "search-and-rescue mode", aiming to find survivors and recover those who might be trapped in buildings. He said at least 160 people have been injured, and the firefighters who were fighting the initial fire have yet to be accounted for. Swanton said that local environmental officials and emergency personnel have said there is not a risk to the community from the smoke fumes rising from the plant.

Reaction

Those living in and around West report that the blast felt like an earthquake. The United States Geological Survey recorded the explosion as a 2.1-magnitude tremor. The blast was heard as far away as Ennis, 40 miles (64 km) NNE of West, Hillsboro, Waxahachie, DeSoto, and even as far north as Arlington. Windows were blown out in Abbott, 7 miles (11 km) NNE of West.

Texas Governor Rick Perry issued this statement on the evening of April 17:

"We are monitoring developments and gathering information as details continue to emerge about this incident. We have also mobilized state resources to help local authorities. Our thoughts and prayers are with the people of West, and the first responders on the scene."^[

West Independent School District announced on its Twitterfeed that all five of the district's schools would be closed until further notice. Also nearby school districts (Abbott ISD and Penelope ISD) have closed down their schools for a day.

Waco Police indicated that the explosion site would be treated as a crime scene out of caution. The U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosivesannounced on the morning of April 18 that it would be sending a national response team including fire investigators, explosive experts, chemists, and canine units to investigate the site. The U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board, an independent federal agency that investigates accidents involving industrial chemicals, also dispatched a major investigation team to West to begin searching for the cause of the disaster.^[

Urban Search and Rescue Texas Task Force 1 was deployed on the morning of April 18 to assist in search and rescue. In addition, an Incident Management Team from the Texas A&M Forest Service was also deploye^[, as was the Veterinary Emergency Team from Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences.

Governor Perry said on April 18, an emergency declaration was “forthcoming” from President Obama, which will give the state federal aid.

Why have an emergency plan?

April 18, 2013, 9:28 pm

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Why have an emergency plan?

A definite plan to deal with major emergencies is an important element of OH&S programs.
Besides the major benefit of providing guidance during an emergency, developing the plan has other advantages. You may discover unrecognized hazardous conditions that would aggravate an emergency situation and you can work to eliminate them. The planning process may bring to light deficiencies, such as the lack of resources (equipment, trained personnel, supplies), or items that can be rectified before an emergency occurs. In addition an emergency plan promotes safety awareness and shows the organization's commitment to the safety of workers.
The lack of an emergency plan could lead to severe losses such as multiple casualties and possible financial collapse of the organization.
An attitude of "it can't happen here" may be present. People may not be willing to take the time and effort to examine the problem. However, emergency planning is an important part of company operation.
Since emergencies will occur, preplanning is necessary to prevent possible disaster. An urgent need for rapid decisions, shortage of time, and lack of resources and trained personnel can lead to chaos during an emergency. Time and circumstances in an emergency mean that normal channels of authority and communication cannot be relied upon to function routinely. The stress of the situation can lead to poor judgement resulting in severe losses.

What is the overall objective of the plan?

An emergency plan specifies procedures for handling sudden unexpected situations. The objective is to reduce the possible consequences of the emergency by:

• preventing fatalities and injuries;
• reducing damage to buildings, stock, and equipment; and
• accelerating the resumption of normal operations.

You should also consider potential impact to the environment, and to the community in your emergency plan.
Development of the plan begins with a vulnerability assessment. This results of the study will show:

• how likely a situation is to occur
• what means are available to stop or prevent the situation and
• what is necessary for a given situation.

From this analysis, appropriate emergency procedures can be established.
At the planning stage, it is important that several groups be asked to participate. Among these groups, the joint occupational health and safety committee can provide valuable input and a means of wider worker involvement. Appropriate municipal officials should also be consulted since control may be exercised by the local government in major emergencies and additional resources may be available. Communication, training and periodic drills will ensure adequate performance if the plan must be carried out.

What is a vulnerability assessment?

Although emergencies by definition are sudden events, their occurrence can be predicted with some degree of certainty. The first step is to find which hazards pose a threat to any specific enterprise.
When a list of hazards is made, records of past incidents and occupational experience are not the only sources of valuable information. Since major emergencies are rare events, knowledge of both technological (chemical or physical) and natural hazards can be broadened by consulting with fire departments, insurance companies, engineering consultants, and government departments.

What are technological and natural hazards?

Areas where flammables, explosives, or chemicals are used or stored should be considered as the most likely place for a technological hazard emergency to occur. Examples of these hazards are:

• fire
• explosion
• building collapse
• major structural failure
• spills of flammable liquids
• accidental release of toxic substances
• deliberate release of hazardous biological agents, or toxic chemicals
• other terrorist activities
• exposure to ionizing radiation
• loss of electrical power
• loss of water supply
• loss of communications
• environment agencies

The risk from natural hazards is not the same across Canada but the list would include:

• floods,
• earthquakes,
• tornadoes,
• other severe wind storms,
• snow or ice storms,
• severe extremes in temperature (cold or hot), and
• pandemic diseases like influenza.

The possibility of one event triggering others must be considered. An explosion may start a fire and cause structural failure while an earthquake might initiate all the events noted in the list of chemical and physical hazards.

What is the series of events or decisions that should be considered?

Having identified the hazards, the possible major impacts of each should be itemized, such as:

• sequential events (for example, fire after explosion)
• evacuation
• casualties
• damage to plant infrastructure
• loss of vital records/documents
• damage to equipment
• disruption of work

Based on these events, the required actions are determined. For example:

• declare emergency
• sound the alert
• evacuate danger zone
• close main shutoffs
• call for external aid
• initiate rescue operations
• attend to casualties
• fight fire

The final consideration is a list and the location of resources needed:

• medical supplies
• auxiliary communication equipment
• power generators
• respirators
• chemical and radiation detection equipment
• mobile equipment
• emergency protective clothing
• fire fighting equipment
• ambulance
• rescue equipment
• trained personnel

What are elements of the emergency plan?

The emergency plan includes

• all possible emergencies, consequences, required actions, written procedures, and the resources available
• detailed lists of personnel including their home telephone numbers, their duties and responsibilities
• floor plans, and
• large scale maps showing evacuation routes and service conduits (such as gas and water lines).

Since a sizable document will likely result, the plan should provide staff members with written instructions about their particular emergency duties.
The following are examples of the parts of an emergency plan. These elements may not cover every situation in every workplace but serve they are provided as a general guideline when writing a workplace specific plan:

Objective

The objective is a brief summary of the purpose of the plan; that is, to reduce human injury and damage to property in an emergency. It also specifies those staff members who may put the plan into action. The objective identifies clearly who these staff members are since the normal chain of command cannot always be available on short notice. At least one of them must be on the site at all times when the premises are occupied. The extent of authority of these personnel must be clearly indicated.

Organization

One individual should be appointed and trained to act as Emergency Co-ordinator as well as a "back-up" co-ordinator. However, personnel on the site during an emergency are key in ensuring that prompt and efficient action is taken to minimize loss. In some cases it may be possible to recall off-duty employees to help but the critical initial decisions usually must be made immediately.
Specific duties, responsibilities, authority, and resources must be clearly defined. Among the responsibilities that must be assigned are:

• reporting the emergency
• activating the emergency plan
• assuming overall command
• establishing communication
• alerting staff
• ordering evacuation
• alerting external agencies
• confirming evacuation complete
• alerting outside population of possible risk
• requesting external aid
• coordinating activities of various groups
• advising relatives of casualties
• providing medical aid
• ensuring emergency shut offs are closed
• sounding the all-clear
• advising media

This list of responsibilities should be completed using the previously developed summary of countermeasures for each emergency situation. In organizations operating on reduced staff during some shifts, some personnel must assume extra responsibilities during emergencies. Sufficient alternates for each responsible position must be named to ensure that someone with authority is available onsite at all times.
External organizations that may be available to assist (with varying response times) include:

• fire departments
• mobile rescue squads
• ambulance services
• police departments
• telephone company
• hospitals
• utility companies
• industrial neighbours
• government agencies

These organizations should be contacted in the planning stages to discuss each of their roles during an emergency. Mutual aid with other industrial facilities in the area should be explored.
Pre-planned coordination is necessary to avoid conflicting responsibilities. For example, the police, fire department, ambulance service, rescue squad, company fire brigade, and the first aid team may be on the scene simultaneously. A pre-determined chain of command in such a situation is required to avoid organizational difficulties. Under certain circumstances, an outside agency may assume command.
Possible problems in communication have been mentioned in several contexts. Efforts should be made to seek alternate means of communication during an emergency, especially between key personnel such as overall commander, on-scene commander, engineering, fire brigade, medical, rescue, and outside agencies. Depending on the size of the organization and physical layout of the premises, it may be advisable to plan for an emergency control centre with alternate communication facilities. All personnel with alerting or reporting responsibilities must be provided with a current list of telephone numbers and addresses of those people they may have to contact.

Procedures

Many factors determine what procedures are needed in an emergency, such as

• the degree of emergency,
• the size of organization,
• the capabilities of the organization in an emergency situation,
• the immediacy of outside aid,
• the physical layout of the premises, and
• the number of structures determine procedures that are needed.

Common elements to be considered in all emergencies include pre-emergency preparation and provisions for alerting and evacuating staff, handling casualties, and for containing of the emergency.
Natural hazards, such as floods or severe storms, often provide prior warning. The plan should take advantage of such warnings with, for example, instructions on sand bagging, removal of equipment to needed locations, providing alternate sources of power, light or water, extra equipment, and relocation of personnel with special skills. Phased states of alert allow such measures to be initiated in an orderly manner.
The evacuation order is of greatest importance in alerting staff. To avoid confusion, only one type of signal should be used for the evacuation order. Commonly used for this purpose are sirens, fire bells, whistles, flashing lights, paging system announcements, or word-of-mouth in noisy environments. The all-clear signal is less important since time is not such an urgent concern.
The following are "musts":

• identify evacuation routes, alternate means of escape, make these known to all staff; keep the routes unobstructed.
• specify safe locations for staff to gather for head counts to ensure that everyone has left the danger zone. Assign individuals to assist handicapped employees in emergencies.
• carry out treatment of the injured and search for the missing simultaneously with efforts to contain the emergency.
• provide alternate sources of medical aid when normal facilities may be in the danger zone.
• containing the extent of the property loss should begin only when the safety of all staff and neighbours at risk has been clearly established.

Testing and Revision

Completing a comprehensive plan for handling emergencies is a major step toward preventing disasters. However, it is difficult to predict all of the problems that may happen unless the plan is tested. Exercises and drills may be conducted to practice all or critical portions (such as evacuation) of the plan. A thorough and immediate review after each exercise, drill, or after an actual emergency will point out areas that require improvement. Knowledge of individual responsibilities can be evaluated through paper tests or interviews.
The plan should be revised when shortcomings have become known, and should be reviewed at least annually. Changes in plant infrastructure, processes, materials used, and key personnel are occasions for updating the plan.
It should be stressed that provision must be made for the training of both individuals and teams, if they are expected to perform adequately in an emergency. An annual full-scale exercise will help in maintaining a high level of proficiency.

Ram Navami - Festivals The birth of a hero

April 18, 2013, 10:41 pm

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Ram Navami - Festivals

The birth of a hero

Ram Navami is a festival that celebrates the birth of Lord Rama, the son of King Dasharath. It was a joyous occasion in Ayodhya all those centuries ago when King Dasharath's heir was finally born. It was like a dream come true for the king as the lack of an heir had troubled him sorely for many years. 

Lord Rama is an avatar of Lord Vishnuwho came down to earth to battle the invincible Ravana in human form. Lord Brahma had been receiving complaints from all the gods about the havoc that Ravana was wreaking on earth, but because Lord Brahma had granted Ravana so many boons, he could not be killed by a god. But Ravana had become so overconfident that he would never expect an attack from a human being. So Lord Vishnu agreed to go to earth in the guise of Prince Ram, the son of King Dasharath and Queen Kaushalya. 

The story of Lord Rama as told in the great epic Ramayana is one that most Indians know irrespective of caste, creed and religion. Lord Rama is a legendary figure, the epitome of all that is good and true, the man who vanquished the demon king Ravana. Lord Rama is not just a hero, but has been given the status of a god by the Hindus. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that his birth is celebrated year after year with great pomp and enjoyment on the ninth day after the new moon in Sukul Paksh (the waxing moon), which falls sometime in the month of April.
 

The festivities

So how is Ram Navami celebrated? Some people choose to fast on this day. The diet of such a person would include potatoes made in any form without haldi (turmeric), garlic, ginger or onion. He can also eat fruit and root vegetables of any kind. Curd, tea, coffee, milk, and water are also permitted. 

Bhajans praising the exploits of Lord Rama, his loyal brother Lakshman and his devoted wife Sita are sung. The house is swept clean and pictures of Lord Rama, Lakshman, Sita and Hanuman are put on a dais in preparation for the puja. Flowers and incense are kept before the deities. There are two thaalis kept ready in the puja area. One contains the prasad and the other the items necessary for the puja like roli, aipun, rice, water, flowers, a bell and a conch.

First, the youngest female member of the family applies teeka to all the male members of the family. A red bindi is applied on the foreheads of all the female members. Everyone participates in the puja by first sprinkling the water, roli, and aipun on the gods and then showering handfuls of rice on the deities. Then everybody stands up to perform the arti at the end of which ganga jal or plain water is sprinkled over the gathering. The singing of bhajans goes on for the entire puja. Finally, the prasad is distributed among all the people who have gathered for worship.

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A Brief History of Life on Earth An Overview of Events That Have Shaped Life on Our Planet

April 19, 2013, 3:39 am

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To better understand the animals that inhabit our present-day world, it helps to examine the broad history of life. By grasping how organisms, past and present, have evolved and diversified throughout the history of our planet, we can better appreciate the animals and wildlife that surround us today.
In this article, we'll examine the major events that took our planet from its lifeless molten beginnings to the present day and look at how scientists break down our planet's 4.5 billion year history into eons, eras, and periods.
It all began 4500 million years ago (Mya) with the Hadean Eon. That's when our solar system formed and, in that solar system, a molten Earth started to cool and take shape. Because there was no solid rock back then, we don't have a geological history of the Hadeon Eon. As soon as the Earth cooled and solid rock formed, that's when geological history began and the Hadean Eon ended.
The Hadeon Eon was followed by the Archean and Proterozoic Eons (often refered to collectively as the Precambrian). It was during the Archean Eon (3800-2700 Mya) that the first organic lifeforms developed out of a mixture of inorganic compounds. The oldest known prokaryotic fossils date back to the Archean Eon. The Proterozoic Eon (2700-590 Mya) gave rise to the first eukaryotic fossils (algae).
Things really started to get interesting at the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon (590 Mya-present). The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon and so much has happened thus far during this eon that scientist have broken it down into smaller pieces to describe the events. So, let's first look at how the Phanerozoic Eon has been broken down. The Phanerozoic Eon is broken down into the following three eras:

• Paleozoic Era (590-248 Mya)
• Mesozoic Era (248-65 Mya)
• Cenozoic Era (65 Mya-present)

The Paleozoic Era (590-248 Mya) is an exciting time in the history of life that begins with aquatic life and ends with a diverse collection of organisms including insects, amphibians, plants, fishes, and reptiles. Scientists divide the Paleozoic Era era into six periods:

• Cambrian (590-505 Mya) - aquatic life only, all modern phyla of animals develop, first vertebrates arise, triolobites abundant
• Ordovician (505-438 Mya) - still only aquatic lifeforms, fishes diversify, invertebrates diverse and domanate; first mass extinction event
• Silurian (438-408 Mya) - jawless fishes diversify, jawed fishes develop, first land plants and animals arise
• Devonian (408-360 Mya) - first amphibians, land organisms diversify, first bony fishes, first sharks; second mass extinction event
• Carboniferous (360-286 Mya) - first reptiles, first conifers, seed ferns abundant, coral deposits
• Permian (286-248 Mya) - insects, reptiles diversify, first therapsids, cycads and conifers diversify; third mass extinction event

The Mesozoic Era (248-65 Mya) saw the first mammals but without a doubt, was the era that belonged to the reptiles. Scientists divide the Mesozoic Era into three periods:

• Triassic (248-213 Mya) - reptiles diversify, first dinosaurs appear, bony fish diversify; fourth mass extinction event
• Jurassic (213-144 Mya) - dinosaurs dominate, first mammals, first birds, gymnosperm forests
• Creataceous (144-65 Mya) - modern birds, modern fishes, angiosperms, climax of dinosaur domination, period ends with the extinction of the dinosaurs; fifth mass extinction event

The Cenozoic Era (64 Mya-present) is the age of mammals. Scientist divide the Cenozoic Era into two periods:

• Tertiary (65-1.8 Mya) - placental mammals, modern mammals, primates, grazing mammals, origin of the human family
• Quaternary (1.8 Mya-present) - modern humans worldwide distribution and dominance; sixth mass extinction event

Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere , WEATHER, CLOUDS

April 19, 2013, 3:52 am

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Layers of the Earth's Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into five layers. It is thickest near the surface and thins out with height until it eventually merges with space.
1) The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half of the Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer.
2) Many jet aircrafts fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable. Also, the ozone layer absorbs harmful rays from the Sun.
3) Meteors or rock fragments burn up in the mesosphere.
4) The thermosphere is a layer with auroras. It is also where the space shuttle orbits.
5) The atmosphere merges into space in the extremely thin exosphere. This is the upper limit of our atmosphere.

The Ionosphere

Scientists call the ionosphere an extension of the thermosphere. So technically, the ionosphere is not another atmospheric layer. The ionosphere represents less than 0.1% of the total mass of the Earth's atmosphere. Even though it is such a small part, it is extremely important! The upper atmosphere is ionized by solar radiation. That means the Sun's energy is so strong at this level, that it breaks apart molecules. So there ends up being electrons floating around and molecules which have lost or gained electrons. When the Sun is active, more and more ionization happens!

Weather

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place. Most weather takes place in the troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
Weather is measured and described in a variety of ways by meteorologists, scientists who study and predict weather. Air temperature and pressure, the amount and type of precipitation, the strength and direction of wind, and the types of clouds are all described in a weather report.
Weather changes each day because the air in our atmosphere is always moving, distributing energy from the Sun. In most places in the world, the types of weather events also vary throughout the year as seasons change.

Clouds

Clouds can come in all sizes and shapes, and can form near the ground or high in the atmosphere. Clouds are groups of tiny water droplets or ice crystals in the sky and are formed by different processes. They can make different kinds of precipitation depending on the atmosphere's temperature.
Cloud types are classified by height and appearance. The shape depends on the way the air moves around the cloud. If air moves horizontally, clouds form spread-out layers. Clouds grow upward if air is moving vertically near the cloud.
At any given time, clouds cover about 50% of the Earth. We would not have rain, thunderstorms, rainbows, or snow without clouds. Clouds make up some of the atmospheric optics we can see in the sky. The atmosphere would be boring if the sky was always clear!
Did you know that Earth is not the only planet with clouds? Other planets, like Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Neptune, Uranus, and Saturn, have clouds too!

Cloud Types

April 19, 2013, 3:53 am

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Cloud Types

Most clouds are associated with weather. These clouds can be divided into groups mainly based on the height of the cloud's base above the Earth's surface. The following table provides information about cloud groups and any cloud classes associated with them. In addition, some clouds don't fall into the categories by height. These additional cloud groups are listed below the high, middle, and low cloud groups.

Cloud Group and Height *	Cloud Types
High Clouds 5,000-13,000m (Noctilucent clouds are the highest clouds in the sky, however they are not associated with weather like the rest of the clouds in this table.)
Middle Clouds 2,000-7,000m
Low Clouds Surface-2,000m
Clouds with Vertical Growth Surface-13,000m
Unusual Clouds (View cloud heights on each cloud's individual page)
Contrails 5,000-13,000m

* The cloud heights provided in this table are for the mid-latitudes. Cloud heights are different at the tropics and in the polar regions. In addition, a few other cloud types are found in higher layers of the atmosphere. Polar stratospheric clouds are located in a layer of the atmosphere called the stratosphere. Polar mesoshperic, or noctilucent, clouds are located in the atmospheric layer called the mesosphere.

How Clouds Form

April 19, 2013, 4:07 am

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How Clouds Form

A cloud is composed of tiny water droplets or ice crystals that are suspended in the air. A series of processes have to happen in order for these water droplets or ice crystals to form into clouds in the atmosphere, and different types of clouds form from different processes. The four main ways that clouds can form are:

• Surface Heating

• Cloud Formation Due to Surface Heating

  Some clouds form due to the heating of the Earth's surface. First, the Sun heats the ground, which then heats the air. This warm air is lighter and less dense than the surrounding air, so it begins to rise. When this air rises, it expands because of the lower pressures that exists at higher levels in the atmosphere. Anytime air expands because of a drop in pressure, it also gets cooler. So when the rising air expands it also cools.
  The cooling air that is rising is no longer able to hold all of the water vapor it was able to hold when it was warm. This extra water vapor begins to condense out of the air parcel in the form of liquid water droplets. As the air parcel rises higher and higher, it continues to expand and get cooler, and more moisture condenses out of it.
  Eventually, enough moisture will condense out of the air parcel to form a cloud! The types of clouds that form from the process of surface heating are cumulonimbus (and associated mammatus clouds), cumulus, and stratocumulus.
  In contrast to surface heating, the cooling of the Earth's surface leads to the development of fog and stratus clouds.
   
• Mountains and Terrain
• Air Masses Being Forced to Rise
• Weather Fronts (cold or warm)

All of these processes involve the cooling of air. Warm air is able to hold larger amounts of water vapor than cool air, so when air cools it is no longer able to hold all of the water vapor it was able to hold when it was warm. This extra water vapor begins to condense out of the air into liquid water droplets.
Typically, water vapor needs some sort of particle, such as dust or pollen, to condense upon. These particles are called condensation nuclei. Eventually, enough water vapor will condense upon condensation nuclei to form a cloud. The water droplets in the cloud may eventually fall down to Earth in the form of rain or snow (or other forms of precipitation).

Cloud Formation Due to Mountains

Some clouds form when air encounters a mountain range or other types of terrain. When this happens, the air will rise and cool, and this cooler air is no longer able to hold all of the water vapor it was able to hold when it was warm. The extra water vapor begins to condense out of the air parcel in the form of liquid water droplets and a cloud is formed.
The types of clouds that form from encounters with mountains are stratus clouds and lenticular clouds.
The image on this page shows how winds can blow into a mountain range and then rise higher in the atmosphere. The side of the mountains where the wind starts is called the windward side. The side of the mountains where the wind leaves the area is called the leeward side.
Another way that mountains cause cloud formation is when air rises because the mountain is warmer than the surrounding air and causes the air to rise. Once the air rises, it follows the same process to form clouds as described above. The types of clouds that form in this case are cumulonimbus (and associated mammatus clouds), and cumulus.

Clouds Formed by Air Being Forced to Rise

Some clouds form when air at the surface of the Earth is forced to rise. There are three processes that force air to rise.
First, in a low pressure system, wind moves in towards the center from all directions because air moves from high to low pressure. When this air meets in the center, there is nowhere for the air to go but up. Air is also forced to rise when it is traveling over land that slopes upward. The air cools as it rises, and eventually clouds will form. Finally, weather fronts produce clouds by causing air to rise when the lighter warm air flows over the heavier cold air.
All of the cloud types are formed by these processes, especially altocumulus, altostratus, cirrocumulus, stratocumulus, or stratus clouds

Cloud Formation Due to Weather Fronts

Weather fronts can cause clouds to form. Fronts occur when two large masses of air collide at the Earth's surface.
Warm fronts produce clouds when warm air replaces cold air by sliding above it. Many different cloud types can be created in this way: altocumulus, altostratus, cirrocumulus, cirrostratus, cirrus, cumulonimbus (and associated mammatus clouds), nimbostratus, stratus, and stratocumulus.
Cold fronts occur when heavy cold air displaces lighter warm air, pushing it upward. Cumulus clouds are the most common cloud types that are produced by cold fronts. They often grow into cumulonimbus clouds, which produce thunderstorms. Cold fronts can also produce nimbostratus, stratocumulus, and stratus clouds.
 

Weather in Urban Areas

April 19, 2013, 4:14 am

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Weather in Urban Areas

Heavy rainfall often occurs around cities. In fact, cities themselves can affect the weather. Scientists have several different hypotheses that may explain how cities impact rain.
One hypothesis is that the urban heat island effect, which causes warmer temperatures in cities, creates unstable air which leads to rain. Air is unstable when it is warmer than the air around it. The warm, unstable air starts to rise. The air cools as it rises, which allows water vapor within it to condense and form clouds. If the warm, rising air was carrying enough water vapor, those clouds can grow into rainclouds.
Another hypothesis is that when wind hits the skyscrapers and other tall buildings in a city, it is pushed up higher in the atmosphere. This makes unstable air. The unstable air flows upward and cools, allowing water vapor to condense, forming clouds, which can lead to rain.
Tall buildings might have another effect that causes clouds and rain. As wind approaches the buildings, it may be divided with some of it blowing around one side of the city and some of it blowing around the other side. Past the city, the wind comes back together. It collides, flows upward, cools, and releases water vapor forming clouds.
Air pollution in cities may also affect cloud formation and rain. Water vapor condenses on tiny particles in the air pollution, forming the droplets that make a cloud.

Article 1

April 19, 2013, 4:17 am

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Air Pollution

What do smog, acid rain, carbon monoxide, fossil fuel exhausts, and tropospheric ozone have in common? They are all examples of air pollution. Air pollution is not new. As far back as the 13 th century, people started complaining about coal dust and soot in the air over London, England. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the late 1700s, we have been changing the Earth's atmosphere and its chemistry. As industry spread across the globe, so did air pollution. Air pollution has many effects. In addition to being ugly, it can cause illness and even death. It damages buildings, crops, and wildlife. The worst air pollution happened in London when dense smog (a mixture of smoke and fog) formed in December of 1952 and lasted until March of 1953. 4,000 people died in one week. 8,000 more died within six months.
Air pollution is made up of solid particles and chemicals. Natural processes impacting the atmosphere include volcanoes, biological decay, and dust storms. Plants, trees, and grass release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as methane, into the air. We are more concerned with human-made pollution since we have the ability to control it. The pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, VOCs, and nitrogen oxides. The largest source of human-made pollution is the burning of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and gas, in our homes, factories, and cars.
Air pollution is either primary or secondary. Primary pollution is put directly to the air, such as smoke and car exhausts. Secondary pollution forms in the air when chemical reactions changes primary pollutants. The formation of tropospheric ozone is an example of secondary air pollution.
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic and fragile system. Concern is growing about the global effects of air pollution, especially climate change. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health.

Atmospheric Chemistry of Earth's Troposphere

April 19, 2013, 4:22 am

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Atmospheric Chemistry of Earth's Troposphere

When you think of chemistry, do you think about mixing colored liquids in test tubes and maybe making an explosion... or at least a nice puff of smoke? Did you know that a lot of chemistry happens in Earth's atmosphere? There are many different kinds of chemicals in the air. Those chemicals often combine with each other in chemical reactions, making new and different chemicals. This is called "atmospheric chemistry".
Earth's atmosphere has different layers. The lowest layer is called the troposphere. We live in the troposphere. This page explains about atmospheric chemistry in the troposphere.
Most of the gas in our atmosphere is nitrogen. About 4/5ths of the air is nitrogen. What about the other 1/5th? Almost all of it is oxygen, the stuff in the air we need to breathe. There are also very small amounts of a bunch of other chemicals.
Have you heard of greenhouse gases? They are kinds of gases that trap the heat from sunlight in our atmosphere. Earth would be very cold if we didn't have any greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide and methane are two very important greenhouse gases.
Some of the chemicals in the air come from pollution. When we burn coal in a factory or gasoline in our cars, we make air pollution. Coal and oil have sulfur in them. When they burn, they make chemicals called sulfur oxides. These can turn into sulfuric acid when they mix with water droplets in the air. These droplets of acid can fall to the ground as acid rain. Cars and trucks also give off chemicals called nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides combine with other chemicals to make smog. They also help make nitric acid, which is another acid in acid rain.
Nature also does things to change the chemistry of the troposphere. Volcanoes, lightning, and wildfires all add chemicals to the air or change the ones that are already there. Energy from sunlight can make chemical reactions happen, changing one gas into another. Some chemicals move in cycles between the atmosphere, living creatures, and the oceans. The Carbon Cycle and the Nitrogen Cycles are two important cycles that change the chemistry of the atmosphere.
This table (below) describes some of the chemicals in the troposphere, and some of the chemical reactions that happen in the air:

Chemical	Formula	Role in Tropospheric Chemistry
Carbon dioxide	CO2	Carbon dioxide is a kind of greenhouse gas. When we breathe, we take in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. Plants and some kinds of microbes use carbon dioxide during photosynthesis to make food. Burning fuels also puts carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Carbon monoxide	CO	When things burn, they mostly make carbon dioxide. Sometimes they make carbon monoxide, too. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. Volcanoes and car engines make carbon monoxide.
Hydrocarbons	CxOy	Hydrocarbons are chemicals made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms. When fuel burns, it puts some hydrocarbons into the air. Hydrocarbons help to make smog, a kind of air pollution.
Methane	CH4	Methane is a kind of greenhouse gas.
Nitrogen	N2	Most of the gas in Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen. About 4/5ths of the air is nitrogen. The nitrogen cycle explains how nitrogen moves around in the environment. When fuel burns hot, like it does in the engine of a car, nitrogen combines with oxygen to make nitrogen oxides.
Nitrogen Oxides	NO & NO2	Nitrogen oxides are a kind of pollution. Burning fuels like gasoline in air makes nitrogen oxides. Most nitrogen oxides come from cars and trucks. They help to make smog. They also mix with water droplets in the air to make nitric acid. Nitric acid is a part of acid rain.
Nitric Acid	HNO3	Nitric acid is part of acid rain. Nitric acid forms when nitrogen oxides mix with water droplets in the air. Nitrogen oxides are a kind of pollution that comes from the engines of cars and trucks.
Oxygen & Ozone	O2& O3	About 1/5th of the gas in the atmosphere is oxygen. When you breathe, your body uses the oxygen to keep you alive. Ozone is a special kind of oxygen that has three atoms instead of two.
PAN (Peroxyacytyl nitrate)	C2H3O5N	PAN is a kind of air pollution. Smog has PAN in it. PAN forms when nitrogen dioxide, oxygen, and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) get together.
Smog	-	Smog is a mixture of smoke and fog. Photochemical smog is a kind of air pollution. It has nitrogen oxides, ozone, VOCs, and PAN in it.
Photodissociation	-	When a photon of sunlight breaks apart a molecule.
Sulfur Oxides	SO2& SO3	Sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide are types of pollution. People make them when we burn coal and oil. Volcanoes also give off sulfur oxides. Sulfur dioxide mixes with water droplets in the air to make sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is in acid rain.
Sulfuric Acid	H2SO4	Sulfuric acid is in acid rain. Sulfuric acid in the air is made when sulfur dioxide gas mixes with water droplets. The sulfur dioxide gas comes from volcanoes and from coal and oil that people burn for fuel.

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Air Pollution's Effects on Us

April 19, 2013, 4:51 am

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Pollution's Effects on Us

The air is shared among all living things. When it is polluted by a factory in Asia, a fire in Australia, a dust storm in Africa, or car emissions in North America, the sharing continues despite the fact that these chemicals and particles have detrimental effects.
Scientists have determined many of the harmful local effects of air pollution. We know, for instance, that air pollution can negatively impact human health and cause coughs, burning eyes, breathing problems, and even death. We know that atmospheric haze or smog reduces visibility and that acid rain from chemical emissions damages property, pollutes water resources, and can harm forests, wildlife, and agriculture.
But what are the regional and global impacts of air pollution? Through large scientific field campaigns such as MILAGRO, scientists are beginning to track its movement from cities into regional and global environments. Their goal is to determine air pollution’s movement and impact on climate and atmospheric composition locally, regionally, and globally.
Is human-produced air pollution and its effects an example of the "Tragedy of the Commons" –– a concept that states that any resource open to everyone will eventually be destroyed? Despite the fact that people are creating much of today’s air pollution, the answer will ultimately depend on how humankind responds to the problem. A lot has been done to improve air quality in recent decades, but we still have a long way to go.

Air Pollution and Water

April 19, 2013, 4:52 am

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Air Pollution and Water

Have you heard about rivers, lakes, or streams becoming polluted? Sometimes the pollution comes from trash, oil spills, sewage, fertilizers, or chemicals. However, sometimes the source of water pollution is in the air.
Air pollution can make its way into rivers, lakes, or streams. Several different types of air pollutants are able to waterways. Some fall from the sky as dry particles. Other air pollutants are carried to the ground in raindrops, snowflakes, or fog. Some of these pollutants are listed below. They not only harm water, but also the plant and animal life that depend on water to survive.
Nitrogen compounds
Nitrogen is a nutrient that plants need to grow. However, there can be too much of a good thing. Too much nitrogen in a body of water can cause algae to grow very quickly, clogging the waterways, and upsetting the balance of the ecosystem. This is called an algal bloom or “Red Tide.” Algal blooms happen more often now than they did hundreds of years ago. Some algal blooms are toxic. When animals eat the algae they also eat the toxins. Nitrogen compounds in air pollution are partly the cause of algal blooms, and can also contribute to water bodies becoming more acidic.
Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides
When fossil fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere. Both of these air pollutants dissolve in water vapor to form acid. The acidic water vapor condenses into clouds and falls eventually as precipitation such as rain or snow. This is known as “acid rain”. It falls to Earth and eventually enters bodies of water making them more acidic. That is a tough environment for some fish and animals, such as frogs, to survive and reproduce within. Acidic waters prevent fish eggs from hatching. In fact, some very acid lakes have no fish at all.
Some types of rocks neutralize acidic water. The acidic water dissolves rocks such as limestone. The limestone is then in the water, and makes the water less acidic. Bodies of water in areas such as the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada are in more danger because rock is primarily granite, which does not neutralize acid rain.
Mercury
Mercury occurs naturally in the environment but it is also released into the atmosphere by people, mainly from burning waste, and especially from burning fossil fuels such as coal. Mercury can dissolve in water, where bacteria in the water transform it into poisonous methyl mercury. Fish and shellfish absorb methyl mercury into their bodies. When other animals, such as birds or people, eat the fish, the methyl mercury gets into their bodies as well. The United States and other countries test to ensure that the fish sold in stores are safe to eat.
How can people reduce air pollution’s effect on water? Reducing our use of fossil fuels can make the biggest impact. Turn off lights. Walk, ride a bike, or use public transportation. Every little bit done by each person can add up to a noticeable improvement in air pollution.

Air Pollution and Climate Change

April 19, 2013, 4:53 am

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Air Pollution and Climate Change

Air pollution changes our planet’s climate, but not all types of air pollution have the same effect. There are many different types of air pollution. Some types cause global warming to speed up. Others cause global warming to slow down by creating a temporary cooling effect for a few days or weeks. Read on the learn more about the pollution that causes Earth to warm and the pollution that causes Earth to cool.
Some air pollutants cause more global warming
Air pollution includes greenhouse gases. One of these is carbon dioxide, a common part of the exhaust from cars and trucks. Greenhouse gases cause global warming by trapping heat from the Sun in the Earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are a natural part of Earth’s atmosphere, but in the last 150 years or so, the amount in our atmosphere has increased. The increase comes from car exhaust and pollutants released from smokestacks at factories and power plants. The increase in greenhouses gases is the cause of most of the global warming that happened over the past century. Scientists predict that much more warming will likely happen during the next century.
Some air pollutants slow down global warming
Cars, trucks, and smokestacks also release tiny particles into the atmosphere. These tiny particles are called aerosols. They can be made of different things such as mineral dust, sulfates, sea salt, or carbon. Some of these particles get into the atmosphere naturally. They are dust lifted into the atmosphere from deserts, from evaporating droplets from the ocean, released by the smoke from wildfires, and erupting volcanoes. But air pollution released by humans by burning of fossil fuels also adds them to the atmosphere. Aerosols have an impact on climate. While different types of aerosols act differently in the atmosphere, the overall effect of aerosols is cooling.
Greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere for years and cause warming around the world. Computer models indicate that, worldwide, the tiny aerosols cause about half as much cooling as greenhouse gases cause warming.

Aerosols and Climate Change

April 19, 2013, 5:00 am

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There are little particles in the atmosphere that are so small and light they can float in air. These particles are called aerosols. They may be small but they have the ability to change climate.
Some aerosols are a natural part of the atmosphere - coming from erupting volcanoes, sea salt, and wildfires. However, burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas has let lots more aerosols loose in the air. Aerosols are a part of air pollution. They are dangerous to human health and they also dampen the effect of global warming.

Aerosols in the atmosphere can change the amount of solar energy that is reflected away from Earth. Different types of aerosols react differently when hit with sunlight. Sea salt particles reflect sunlight back out into space. Black carbon particles from burning of wood or fossil fuels absorb most of the sunlight that hits them.
Aerosols help clouds form and clouds have an impact on climate. The millions of little droplets of water that make up a cloud each need a little particle, like an aerosol, to condense upon. More aerosols can create more clouds. Different types of clouds may have different impacts on climate and this is a topic that scientists are still exploring. But in general, clouds reflect incoming solar radiation back out to space.
Scientists think that over most of the last century the overall effect of the added aerosols was a reduced amount of global warming. Today, however, as new technologies have allowed factories, power plants, and automobiles to release less air pollution into the atmosphere, the amount of aerosols has dropped. That's a good thing since air pollution is a problem for human health. But it has also means that the pace of global

Ecological Footprint FAQ

April 19, 2013, 7:03 am

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Ecological Footprint FAQ

• What is the Ecological Footprint?
• What does the Ecological Footprint measure?
• How accurate are Ecological Footprint measurements?
• What can Ecological Footprint Analysis tell us about the future of the planet? Are we all doomed?
• What is the proper way to use the term Ecological Footprint?
• How is an Ecological Footprint calculated?
• How does the Ecological Footprint address waste flows?
• How does the Ecological Footprint account for recycling?

What is the Ecological Footprint?
The Ecological Footprint is a resource accounting tool that measures how much biologically productive land and sea is used by a given population or activity, and compares this to how much land and sea is available. Productive land and sea areas support human demands for food, fiber, timber, energy, and space for infrastructure. These areas also absorb the waste products from the human economy. The Ecological Footprint measures the sum of these areas, wherever they physically occur on the planet. The Ecological Footprint is used widely as a management and communication tool by governments, businesses, educational institutions, and non-governmental organizations.
What does the Ecological Footprint measure?
Ecological Footprint accounts answer a specific research question: how much of the biological capacity of the planet is demanded by a given human activity or population? To answer this question, the Ecological Footprint measures the amount of biologically productive land and water area an individual, a city, a country, a region, or all of humanity uses to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb the waste it generates with today’s technology and resource management practices. This demand on the biosphere can be compared to biocapacity, a measure of the amount of biologically productive land and water available for human use. Biologically productive land includes areas such as cropland, forest, and fishing grounds, and excludes deserts, glaciers, and the open ocean.
Global hectares are hectares with world-average productivity for all productive land and water areas in a given year. Studies that are compliant with current Ecological Footprint Standards use global hectares as a measurement unit. This makes Ecological Footprint results globally comparable, just as financial assessments use one currency, such as dollars or Euros, to compare transactions and financial flows throughout the world.
How accurate are Ecological Footprint measurements?
Current Ecological Footprint accounts provide a robust, aggregate estimate of human demand on the biosphere as compared to the biosphere’s productive capacity. As with any calculation system, Footprint accounts are subject to uncertainty in source data, calculation parameters, and methodological decisions. Several organizations are seeking to allocate resources towards obtaining more accurate estimates of this nature.
What can Ecological Footprint Analysis tell us about the future of the planet? Are we all doomed?
The Ecological Footprint highlights the reality of ecological scarcity, which can be disconcerting and frightening information. The existence of global overshoot suggests that human society will need to make significant changes to ‘business as usual’ if it wants to create a sustainable future. Robust and accurate Ecological Footprint accounts can help us make decisions towards sustainability, and can quantitatively show the positive impacts of groups, businesses, and people making decisions that are helping to bring human demand within the means of the planet.
What is the proper way to use the term Ecological Footprint?
The term Ecological Footprint, capitalized, is a proper name referring to a specific research question: how much of the biological capacity of the planet is demanded by a given human activity or population? Often, the word ‘footprint’ is used generically to refer to human impact on the planet, or to a different research question. As commonly used today, for example, the term ‘carbon footprint’ often refers to the number of tons of carbon emitted by a given person or business during a year, or to the tons of carbon emitted in the manufacture and transport of a product. In Ecological Footprint accounts, the ‘carbon Footprint’ measures the amount of biological capacity, in global hectares, demanded by human emissions of fossil carbon dioxide. The term Ecological Footprint has been deliberately excluded from trademark to encourage its widespread use.
How is an Ecological Footprint calculated?
Ecological Footprints can be calculated for individual people, groups of people (such as a nation), and activities (such as manufacturing a product).
The Ecological Footprint of a person is calculated by considering all of the biological materials consumed, and all of the biological wastes generated, by that person in a given year. These materials and wastes each demand ecologically productive areas, such as cropland to grow potatoes, or forest to sequester fossil carbon dioxide emissions. All of these materials and wastes are then individually translated into an equivalent number of global hectares.

To accomplish this, an amount of material consumed by that person (tons per year) is divided by the yield of the specific land or sea area (annual tons per hectare) from which it was harvested, or where its waste material was absorbed. The number of hectares that result from this calculation are then converted to global hectares using yield and equivalence factors. The sum of the global hectares needed to support the resource consumption and waste generation of the person gives that person’s total Ecological Footprint.
How does the Ecological Footprint address waste flows?
From an Ecological Footprint perspective, the term ‘waste’ includes three different categories of materials, and each category is treated differently within Footprint accounts.
First, biological wastes such as residues of crop products, trimmings from harvested trees, and carbon dioxide emitted from fuel wood or fossil fuel combustion are all included within Ecological Footprint accounts. A cow grazing on one hectare of pasture has a Footprint of one hectare for both creating its biological food products and absorbing its biological waste products. This single hectare provides both services, thus counting the Footprint of the cow twice (once for material production and once for waste absorption) results in double counting the actual area necessary to support the cow. The Footprint associated with the absorption of all biological materials that are harvested is thus already counted in the Footprint of those materials.
Second, waste also refers to the material specifically sent to landfills. If these landfills occupy formerly biologically productive area, then the Footprint of this landfill waste can be calculated as the area used for its long term storage.
Finally, waste can also refer to toxics and pollutants released from the human economy that cannot in any way be absorbed or broken down by biological processes, such as many types of plastics. Assessments of the Footprint of toxics and pollutants, when completed, generally refer to the Footprint of extracting, p
rocessing, and handling these materials, but not to the Footprint of creating or absorbing these materials themselves.
How does the Ecological Footprint account for recycling?
As the Ecological Footprint reflects the demand for productive area to make resources and absorb wastes, recycling can lower the Ecological Footprint by offsetting the extraction of virgin products, and reducing the area necessary for absorbing wastes. Recycling paper, for example, can decrease the total amount of virgin timber that must be harvested to meet global demand for paper, thus reducing humanity’s total Ecological Footprint.
The savings that result from the recycling process can be allocated to the person who recycles a material and/or the person who buys recycled material in a number of different ways:

• 100% to the person who buys the recycled paper (the wood fiber in a 100% recycled ream of paper could have no forest Footprint, since the footprint of that wood fiber was already allocated to the person who bought the virgin paper),
• 100% to the person who recycles the paper (a person purchasing 100% virgin paper who recycled all of it would have no Footprint for the wood fiber in that paper, since all of it is reused later, assuming that no fiber is lost in the recycling process), or
• Split between the person who buys recycled paper and the person who recycles paper (the savings can be split 50%/50%, or in any other allocation).

Different researchers use different allocation principles for the savings from recycling, and standards-compliant Footprint studies will state their chosen allocation method explicitly. Regardless of allocation method, however, the largest reductions in Ecological Footprint can most commonly be achieved by reducing the total amount of materials consumed, rather than attempting to recycle them afterwards.