CROP MANAGEMENT

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CROP MANAGEMENT

Planting materials
Seed Certification Phases
Minimum Germination Percentage for Seed Certification
Maximum Permissible Moisture level for seeds
Minimum isolation requirements for seed production
Vegetative Propagation
             Leaf Cutting
             Stem Cutting
             Simple Layer
             Air Layer
             Tissue Culture
Fertilisers
            Chemical fertilizers
            Organic manures
            Bio-fertilizers
            Liming
Plant protection
            Cultural
            Chemical
                     Insecticides
                     Pheromones
                     Fungicides
                     Herbicides
                     Rodenticides
                     Handling and mixing
                     Field applications
                     Equipment cleaning and storage
                     Storage of chemicals
                     Preparing the sprayer
                     Disposal of pesticides and containers
Bio control
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Weed management
            Prevention
            Cultural
            Mechanical
            Herbicidal

Planting materials

Seed

Seed is a fertile and ripened ovule, which contains an embryonic plant, supplied with food storage tissues and surrounded by a seed coat. A seed strictly speaking is an 'embryo' a living organism embedded in the supporting or the food storage tissue. According to the Seed Act 1966, seed includes all planting materials such as seedlings, tubers, bulbs, grafts, etc.

Seed Technology - involves seed production, processing, storage testing and certification, marketing and distribution and the related research on these aspects. Seed production includes varietals development, evaluation and release of varieties.

Role of Seed Technology - improved seed - a carrier of new technologies a basic tool for secured food supply- the principal means to secure crop yields in less favorable areas of productivity - a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in areas of natural disaster - a 'national seed reserve stock' of seed is necessary to face such situations. Seed is the fundamental unit of crop production - Regarded as the most vital, basic and critical input in agriculture for increasing and sustaining agricultural production. The year in which the Royal Commission on Agriculture was constituted -1925. It emphasized the need for a separate organization in India to deal with seed distribution. This paved the way for the set up of the National Seed Corporation (NSC) in 1963. Coverage of high yielding varieties in Kerala -60.32% (1999-2000). Maximum coverage during Punja followed by Viruppu and Mundakan. The poor coverage is the non-availability of quality seeds of the High Yielding Varieties (HYV). In India seed production and distribution have become a well developed industry - involving an annual turn over of Rs.2200 crores - Public sector -Rs.55 crores (25%) - Private sector Rs.1320 crores (60%) - other unorganised sector Rs.330 crores (15%) India is exporting seeds worth of Rs.20 crores in an year.

Goals - To increase agricultural production through the spread of good quality seeds of HYVs. It aims at (1) rapid multiplication, (2) timely supply, (3) assuming high quality, (4) reasonable price.

Bases of a Seed Programme - (1) high level support, (2) productive plant breeding programme, (3) Co-ordinated effort.

History of development of Seed Technology

• First Five Year Plan (1951-56) - Distribution of improved seeds of food grains came into existence - seed distribution with subsidy.
• Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) - Improved seed was made as a basis for 10% additional food grain production - Production of foundation seeds - started seed production centers and seed stores.
• Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) - Released first four hybrids of maize in 1961 - necessitated a separate organization for seed production. Thus gave birth to NSC in 1963.

HYV was started during 1966 and there was high coverage of HYV seeds for food crops by 1968-69. The HYV Programme had an almost explosive effect on the seed industries and necessitated huge effort in seed production, processing, certification, testing and storage, seed distribution, etc.

Annual Plans (1966-69) - Seed Review Team - Constituted by Government of India in 1968- suggested to entrust the work related to production, processing and marketing of seed co-operative and private sectors - also NSC should assist State Government to constitute their own certification agencies. IV plan (1969-74) - In 1969 - Tara Development Corporation Ltd was started with the active involvement of GB Pan1 University of agriculture and technology - Growers participation as shareholders instead of contract system of seed production.

Seed Act 1966 came into force through out India from 1969
V Five Year Plan (1974-79) - Reviewed by National Commission on Agriculture - Many recommendations were made in 1976 - (1) Rigorous enforcement of Seed Act 1966; (2) National Registry of varieties - system by ICAR; (3) Departments of Agriculture - in the center and state should have three distinct wings each dealing respectively with (a) input aspect, (b) land enforcement (c) certification; (4) Grow-out tests should be made on integral parts of seed testing.

Generation concept of seed multiplication

NUCLEUS SEED - initial seed-small quantity from the originating plant breeder - for further multiplication to maintain the variety - multiplication by the supervision of the plant breeder or any other qualified plant breeder - genetic purity - 100%.

BREEDER SEED - progeny of nucleus seed multiplied by the breeder or by the institution - source for the foundation seed - genetic purity is 100%. Not subjected to certification. But monitoring by a team of exports - Golden Yellow colour tag.

FOUNDATION SEED (FS) - Progeny of Breeder seed production is supervised by certification agency. Minimum genetic purity 99%-white tag. Can be II stages. FS Stage FS Stage II and I. Stage II is only if Breeder Seed I in short supply. NSC, SDA and State Seed Corporation are involved in the production.

CERTIFIED SEED (CS) - Produced from FS, Seed Certification Agency certifies - supervising by seed certification agency, State Seed Corporation and NSC - subjected to one or more stage of production genuine shortage of FS. Such production does not exceed three generations beyond FS.1 Minimum genetic purity 98% - Tag colour Azure Blue. To maintaining genetic purity, Cs should be replaced every 4th season or 4th crop.

SEED CERTIFICATION

Purpose: To maintain and make available high quality seeds with genetic identify and purity - designed to achieve prescribed standards - legally sanctioned system for quality control during all stages of seed production. In India seed certification is a voluntary process - but labeling is compulsory.

NSC evolved the certification standards. The central seed committee approved these standards - the standards are includes in the Indian minimum seed certification standards published by Government to establish their own seed certification agencies. A statutory central seed certification Board co-ordinated the activities of State seed certification agencies. (Only those varieties, which are notified by central seed committee, are eligible for certification).

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Seed Certification Phases

• Verification of seed source
• Verification and approval of seed fields prior to planting
• Inspection of seed crop in field to verify its conformity to the prescribed standards.
• Supervision of harvest and post harvest operations including processing and packing.
• Sampling and analysis of seeds to conform seed standards.
• Grant of certificate tags, lebelling and sealing.

Seed Certification standards.

			(Percentage)
Quantity Traits	ES	CS	TLS
Pure seed (minimum)	98	98	97
Other crop seeds (maximum)	10 No./Kg	0.1	-
Weed seed (maximum)	10 No./Kg	0.1	-
Inert matter (maximum)	2	2	-
Objectionable weed seed (maximum)	2 No./Kg	5 No./Kg	-
Germination (minimum)	80	80	70
Moisture content	12	12	-

(Source: Indian minimum seed certification standards 1971 - Central Seed Committee)

Truthfully Labeled Seeds (TLS)
Seeds of the varieties, which are not eligible for certification can be, produced as truthfully labeled seeds. The seeds should be labeled as follows:
(1) Kind, (2) variety, (3) Lot No, (4) Date of test, (5) Inert matter % (6) pure seed %, (7) Other crop seed %, (8)weed seed %, (9) Germination %, (10) net content, (11) sellers name and address, (12) if treated, any one of the following statements should appear in the label:

'Do not use for food, feed or oil purpose (or Poison)'. If the content of the container is less than 250gm or less, the items 5 to 9 may be replaced by the statement " The seed in this container conform to the minimum limits of germination and purity prescribed under the Act"

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Minimum Germination Percentage for Seed Certification

Crop	First count	Final Count	Minimum Germination (%)
Rice	5	14	80
Cowpea	5	8	75
Green gram	3	7	75
Blackgram	4	7	75
Groundnut	5	10	70
Bhindi	4	21	65
Sesame	3	6	80
Chillies	6	14	60
Tomato	5	14	70
Cucumber	4	8	60
Bitter gourd	4	8	60
Pumpkin	4	8	60

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Maximum Permissible Moisture level for seeds

Crops	Maximum Percentage of Moisture Allowed
Rice	12
Cowpea	9
Green Gram	9
Blackgram	9
Groundnut	9
Bhindi	10
Sesame	9
Amaranthus	8
Chillies	8
Tomato	8
Cucumber	7
Bitter gourd	7
Brinjal	8

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Minimum isolation requirements for seed production (in metres)

Crop	Seed Class
	Foundation	Certified
Rice, wheat, groundnut, cowpea, soyabean	3	3
Cotton	50	30
Tomato	50	25
Sesame	100	50
Brinjal	200	100
Chillies	400	200
Bhindi	400	200
Amaranthus	400	200
Cucurbits (cucumber, bitter gourd, etc)	800	400
Cabbage, cauliflower, etc	1600	1000

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Field Inspection Schedule

Variety	1st inspection	2nd inspection	3rd inspection
Short duration	Within 60 days	85 days	100 days
Medium duration	80 days	100 days	125 days
Long duration	90 days	125 days	150 days

Storage of seeds
Storage problems arise when -
1. Low quality seeds are stored
2. Seeds are not adequately dried
3. Seeds are stored in poorly constructed godowns
4. Seeds are stored for a very long time.
Factors influencing loss of viability of rice.
(1) Moisture content, (2) temperature (3) relative humidity - are the main factors.
Moisture - 12% moisture content - no fungal mould grow.
At 13% MC mould grow.
At 15% to 18% MC - maximum fungal growth.
At 8% RH - stored pests survive but do not multiply.
At 14% RH-insects multiply and destroy seeds.
At 18-20% RH - heating of seeds due to heavy respiration - insects & moulds grow.
At 40-60% RH- seeds germinate.

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Vegetative Propagation

Leaf Cutting

Many plants can be artificially cloned by leaf cuttings; species that work well include African violet (Saintpaulia), Peperomia, bryophyllum (Kalanchoe) and jade plant (Crassula). In this process a leaf (blade + petiole) is removed from the donor plant. The leaf is placed in moist soil or, perhaps, in water and placed in the light.
The leaf blade, as usual, produces IAA (auxin). This auxin is transported basipetally (down the petiole) as usual.

The IAA accumulates in the base of the petiole to the point that a callus tissue (tumor) forms. A callus is a mixture of meristematic cells and parenchyma cells. Since these cells do not have a determined fate, it is possible to influence these cells to differentiate in just about any direction.

The IAA continues to accumulate in the callus. The concentration rises to the point that roots are initiated on the callus.

The roots produce cytokinins (CK). This hormone is transported acropetally (away from the root tip, toward the callus). The cytokinin accumulates in the callus.
As the concentration of cytokinin accumulates in the callus, it stimulates shoot formation. The shoots then can grow up. In the end you have a shoot with roots...a whole plant!

In some plants, the callus sends up multiple shoots. In those cases, the gardener has to separate the individual plantlets before potting up the individual plants.
Obviously this process can be accelerated if the last centimeter of the petiole is dusted with a mixture of talcum powder and synthetic auxin (indole butyric acid) before the leaf is planted in the moist soil at the beginning. This mixture is often called "rooting hormone" and two leading brands of this are Rootone&174 and Hormodin&174.

Stem Cutting

Many species cannot be propagated from leaves alone. The leaf may root, but shoots do not form, or form so slowly that you do not dare wait for it. For such species, it may be possible to instead make a stem cutting. The process is very much the same, but is much faster due to the contributions of auxin from several leaves, and the contributions of photosynthesis in several leaves.

Generally the gardener cuts a short piece of stem (three or four internodes maximum). It does not have to include an apical meristem, but often it does. The leaves from the lowest node are torn from the stem. The basal end of the cutting may be dusted with rooting hormone (if needed or desired).

The several leaves remaining on the stem cutting all send IAA (auxin) down from the blade. This accumulates at the basal end of the cutting (along with any applied rooting hormone). The accumulated auxin stimulates formation of callus and ultimately roots.

Once we have a stem with roots, our plant has been cloned and the process is complete.

Simple Layer

A tip layer is a natural method of propagation in such species as black raspberry. A simple layer is fundamentally an artificially-forced tip layer. In many shrubs that cannot be cloned by leaf or stem cuttings, a simple layer may work well. Rather than making a single leaf or a small stem cutting provide for its own needs and enough extra to make a new plant, a simple layer can be used to allow contributions from the whole donor plant to drive the cloning process.

1. A stem, low on the shrub, is arched mechanically to the ground and held in place with some small wire hoops.
2. The lower surface of the held stem is wounded (with a small notch or some grooves) and the wound is dusted with rooting hormone.
3. The wounded, dusted, section of the stem is buried in the moist soil.
4. With time, the hormone powder and contributions of IAA from the rest of the leaves on the donor plant cause roots to form from the wounded area.
5. The rooted stem can then be separated from the donor plant.

Air Layer

If a gardener is trying to propagate a tree instead of a shrub, there is no way to bring a branch down to the ground for a tip layer. If you cannot bring Mohammed to the Mountain, then you bring the Mountain to Mohammed! This is the idea of the air layer.

1. Somewhere along a young stem in the tree canopy, the lower surface of a stem is wounded and the wound dusted with rooting hormone.
2. A few hundred cubic centimeters of moist sphagnum moss or even moist soil is packed around the wound.
3. The sphagnum/soil is held in place with plastic film, and the film is secured around the stem with twist-ties above and below the wound. The soil has to be kept continually moist.
4. With time, roots develop in the small wad of sphagnum. The rooted branch can then be cut from the donor tree.

Tissue Culture

When one is trying to make many thousands of individuals of one clone, then a different method is needed. Tissue culture to the rescue!

1. First you need some donor tissue. This is called the explant. The tissue has to be at least parenchyma, but is better if it is meristematic. The tissue has to be surface-sterilized. This is done by immersing the tissue in a solution of sodium hypochlorite (laundry bleach), rinsing in sterile distilled water, then perhaps slicing off the killed surface layers.

2. The explant is placed in a sterilized liquid medium on a shaking machine. This medium contains water, minerals, vitamins, sugar (energy for growth by respiration), and dilute auxin (usually indole-butyric acid). The auxin stimulates the cells of the explant to divide rapidly to form callus. The callus is broken up by the shaking action. Thus the liquid medium becomes loaded with small callus pieces.

3. The callus pieces are now spread across a sterile solid medium. The medium contains water, minerals, vitamins, sugar, and cytokinins. The medium is solidified into a gel by adding a small amount of agar. The container is kept under light. The combination of cytokinin and light causes shoots to be initiated on each callus piece.

4. The shoots are moved onto a solid medium that contains water, minerals, and agar. Depending on the species, there may also be some auxin in the medium. The auxin from the leaves on the shoots (or in combination with auxin from the medium) cause root initiation.

5. The plants can be moved to soil and slowly eased from humid conditions to successively drier conditions. Ultimately the plants can be moved to field conditions.
Because each explant can initiate indefinitely many callus pieces, and each callus piece can make a new plant, the number of plants produced can be extremely high.

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Fertilizers

Chemical fertilisers

Choice of a fertiliser depends on unit cost of nutrient present in it and its agronomic efficiency under a given situation. Fertiliser is a valuable input and measures should be taken to reduce its losses and to increase its uptake and utilisation by the crop. Selecting a situation-specific fertilizer and choosing the time and method of application according to crop demand would minimize losses and increase its efficiency.

Nitrogenous fertilisers

Most crop plants recover only 25-35% of the nitrogen applied as fertilizers. Losses occur by ammonia volatilisation, denitrification, immobilization to organic forms, leaching and run off. Utmost care should be bestowed in selecting the type of fertiliser as well as the timing and method of application.

Choice of the nitrogen fertilizer

1. In submerged rice soil, ammoniacal and ammonia-producing fertilizers like urea are most suitable since ammonia is the most stable form of nitrogen under such conditions.

2. For acidic upland soils, ammoniacal fertilizers are most suitable during rainy season since ammonium is adsorbed on soil particles and hence leaching losses are reduced. Adsorbed ammonium is gradually released for nitrification and thus becomes available to crops for a longer period.

3. In highly acidic upland soils, urea is preferred to ammonium sulphate as the former is less acid forming.

4. In alkaline upland soils of low rainfall regions, nitrate fertilizers are preferred to ammoniacal fertilisers or urea since ammonia may be lost by volatilization under alkaline conditions

Management of nitrogenous fertilisers

1. Almost all the nitrogenous fertilizers are highly amenable to losses and since most of the crops require nitrogen during the entire growth period, split application is necessary to ensure maximum utilization by crops.

2. More number of splits may be given for long duration crops as well as perennial crops.

3. Nitrogen losses from fertilisers are more in coarse textured soils with low cation exchange capacity (CEC) than in fine textured soils. Hence more number of splits is necessary to reduce loss of fertilizer nitrogen from sandy and other light soils.

4. For medium duration rice varieties, nitrogenous fertilizers should be given in three splits, as basal, at maximum tillering and at panicle initiation stage.

5. In coarse textured sandy or loamy soils, the entire dose of nitrogenous fertilizers may be applied in 3-4 splits at different stages of growth of rice crop.

6. In areas where split application of nitrogen is not feasible due to water stagnation after planting/sowing, full dose of nitrogen as basal may be given in the form of neem coated or coal tar coated urea.

7. In double-cropped wetlands, 50% of N requirement of the first crop may be applied in the organic form.

8. As far as possible, liming should be done one or two weeks prior to the application of ammoniacal or ammonia forming fertilizer like urea since ammonia is likely to be lost by volatilization if applied along with lime

9. Almost 70% of N in urea applied by broadcast to flooded soil is lost by volatilization, immobilization and by denitrification

Measures to reduce the loss of N from applied urea

1. Urea super granules or urea briquettes may be used in places where soil is clayey and has cation exchange capacity more than 10 cmol (+) per kg of soil.

2. Sulphur or lac coated urea is suitable where soil is liable to intermittent flooding and in situations where water management is difficult. This is more suitable for direct sown crop.

3. Urea may be mixed with moist soil and kept for 24-48 hours before application to the field. Alternatively, urea may be mixed with moist soil, made into balls of about three-inch diameter and dried under shade. The balls may be placed deep into subsoil.

4. Mixing urea with five times its weight of neem cake prolongs the period of nitrogen availability to the crop.

5. For submerged soils, coating urea with coal tar and kerosene (100 kg urea is mixed with 2 kg coal tar dissolved in one litre kerosene) before mixing with neem cake is preferred to simple mixing with neem cake.

6. Coating urea with neem extract (containing about 5% neem triterpenes) at 1% rate and shade-drying for 1 to 1.5 hours before applying in direct-seeded puddled lowland rice increases nitrogen use efficiency.

7. As far as possible, urea may be applied by deep placement or plough sole placement. Deep placement of prilled urea or super granules during the last ploughing followed by flooding and planting is beneficial in light soils. Urea briquettes or super granules may be placed between four hills of transplanted rice, whereas sulphur coated or lac coated urea may be broadcast on the surface.

8. Foliar spray of 5% urea solution can be practised in situations where quick response to applied nitrogen is required. If power sprayers are used, the concentration may be increased to 15%. Fresh urea should be used to avoid toxicity due to biuret.

Phosphatic fertilizers

Fertilizer phosphorus is an expensive input and its management poses serious problems due to several complexities in its behaviour in different types of soil. This often results in its poor recovery from applied fertilizers.

Choice of phosphatic fertilizer

1. In slightly acid, neutral or mildly alkaline soils, water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers are more suitable.

2. In wetland rice soils, water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers are preferable as pH of most of the submerged soils is near neutral.

3. In strongly acidic soils whose pH does not rise above 5.5 to 6.0 even on submergence, phosphatic fertilizers containing citrate soluble form of P like basic slag, dicalcium phosphate, steamed bone meal etc. are suitable.

4. For highly acidic upland soils or submerged soils whose pH will not rise above 5.5 even on submergence, powdered rock phosphate is suitable. Soil acidity converts tricalcium phosphate in rock phosphate to plant available monocalcium form.

5. For short duration crops where quick response is required, water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers are most suitable.

6. For perennial crops like rubber, oil palm, coffee, tea, cardamom etc. phosphorus in the form of rock phosphate can be applied.

7. In black soil (Chittur taluk of Palakkad District) phosphatic fertilizers containing water-soluble phosphate like single superphosphate are most suitable.

Management of phosphatic fertilizers

1. Acid soils have to be amended with lime, dolomite or magnesium silicate and alkali soils with iron pyrite or sulphur before application of phosphatic fertilizers. This will help to reduce fixation and increase availability of P.

2. Surface application or broadcasting is preferred for shallow rooted crops whereas placement in the root zone is advantageous in deep-rooted crops.

3. Rock phosphates can be used advantageously in rice grown in acid soils during the virippu season. Powdered rock phosphate may be applied and mixed thoroughly with soil by ploughing. After two or three weeks, the field may be flooded, worked up and planted with rice. Under this situation, phosphorus in rock phosphate gets converted to iron phosphate, which on subsequent waterlogging becomes available to the rice crop.

4. Rock phosphate can be used successfully as a phosphatic source for leguminous crop since its root system can extract phosphorous from rock phosphate.

5. In single crop wetlands where rice is grown in the virippu season, application of phosphatic fertilizers can be dispensed with for the rice crop, if the second crop (usually legume or green manure) is given phosphatic fertilizers.

6. In case of rice-legume cropping sequence in acid soils, application of rock phosphate to the pulse crop helps to skip phosphatic fertilizers in the succeeding rice crop.

7. Since phosphorus requirement of seasonal crops is confined to the early stages, phosphatic fertilizers are to be applied at the time of seeding or planting. Topdressing of phosphatic fertilizer leads to wastage of the fertilizer nutrient. Further, excessive phosphates may lead to deficiency of micronutrients such as zinc, boron etc.

8. Under adverse soil conditions and where quick result is required, spraying water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers like triple superphosphate or hot water extract of superphosphate can be resorted to.

Potassium fertilizers

For most crops, potassium can be supplied as muriate of potash. But in crops like tobacco and potato, muriate of potash may cause chloride injury, reducing quality of the produce. In such cases, K may be applied as potassium sulphate.

Management of potassium fertilizer

1. In coarse textured soils and in heavy rainfall regions, potassium fertilizers should be applied in as many splits as possible, to reduce loss of potassium.

2. In fine textured soils, the entire dose of potassium fertilizers may be applied as basal.

3. In acid soils, potassium fertilizers should be applied only after lime application to prevent loss of potassium by leaching.

Average nutrient content of common fertilizers

Material	Nutrient content (%)
	N	P2O5	K2O
Ammonium sulphate	20.5	-	-
Ammonium sulphate nitrate	26.0	-	-
Ammonium nitrate	33.5	-	-
Ammonium phosphate	20.0	20.0	-
Calcium ammonium nitrate	20.5 / 25.0	-	-
Nitrate of soda	16.5	-	-
Urea	46.0	-	-
Superphosphate (single)	-	18.0	-
Superphosphate (double)	-	35.0	-
Superphosphate (triple)	-	46.0	-
Mussooriephos	-	18-20	-
Rajphos	-	18-20	-
Muriate of potash	-	-	50 / 60

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Organic manures

Organic manures are waste or by products (animal/birds waste, litter, crop refuse or any other organic matter) either decomposed or treated or fresh, which enriches soil. They are bulky i.e. nutrient contents are low per unit volume. Concentrated OM contains higher % of nutrients such us oil cakes, blood/bone/fish meal important effects are:

1. improve the physical properties of the soil
2. supply all nutrients for plant growth
3. enhances soil microbial activity
4. provide a buffering action in soil reactions
5. improve nutrient holding capacity of the soil

Green manures
Green manuring refers to the practice of incorporating plant materials while they are green. It is practiced as green leaf manuring and green manuring insitu.

Average nutrient content of common Organic manures

MAJOR NUTRIENTS IN ORGANIC MANURES
	N	P2O5	K2O
Neem cake	5.2	1	1.4
Coconut cake	3	1.9	1.8
Groundnut cake	7	1.5	1.3
Gingelly cake	6.2	2	1.2
Castor cake	4.3	2	1.3
Mahua cake	2.5	0.8	1.8
Farm yard manure	0.5 - 1.5	0.4 - 0.8	0.5 - 1.9
Compost (Rural)	0.4 - 0.8	0.3 - 0.6	0.7 - 1.0
Compost (Urban)	1.0 - 2.0	1	1.5
Cowdung (fresh)	1.5	0.3	0.2
Biogas slurry	--	--	--
(cowdung based)	1.6 - 1.8	1.1 - 2.0	0.8 - 1.2
Sheep manure	0.8 - 1.6	0.4 - 0.6	0.3 - 0.4
Poultry manure	1.2 - 1.8	1.4 - 1.8	0.8 - 0.9
Bone meal	3.5	21	--
Fish meal	4.1	3.9	0.3
Meat meal	11	1.5	0.6
Blood (dried)	11.5	--	0.6
Sun hemp	2.6	0.5	2
Daincha	3.3	0.7	1.3
Kolinji	3.2	0.3	1.3
Sesbania	2.7	0.5	2.2
Gliricidia	2.9	0.5	2.8
Paddy straw	0.36	0.08	0.71
Household ash	0.5 - 1.9	1.6 - 4.2	2.3 - 12.00
Coir pith Compost	1.26	0.06	1.2

Note: Composition of organic manures vary widely

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Bio-fertilizers

The use of biofertilisers is quite important while practicing the concepts of integrated plant nutrient management and organic farming. Some of the commonly used biofertilisers in Kerala are as follows.

1. Rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium)
It induces better root nodulation and stem nodulation (Azorhizobium) in inoculated plants and thereby brings down the requirement of nitrogen fertilizer for the cultivation of pulses, oil seeds and legume green manures. Commercially it is available as carrier based inoculums. Method of application is seed treatment.

2. Azotobacter
Suitable only for upland crops like vegetables, tapioca, plantation and orchard crops. It is available as carrier-based inoculum. It fixes N about 15-20 kg/ha under ideal upland conditions and thereby reduces the requirement of nitrogen fertilizers by 10-20 per cent. Methods of application are seed treatment, seedling dip and direct soil application.

3. Azospirillum
It is suitable for both upland and wetland conditions and is available as carrier-based inoculum. It fixes N about 20-25 kg per ha under ideal conditions thereby effecting a reduction of 25 per cent in the quantity of N fertilizers required. Treatment with Azospirillum also induces better root formation in inoculated plants. Hence this biofertilizer is also recommended for root induction in polybag-raised seedlings of plantation and orchard crops and also for vegetable crops. The isolates of Azospirillum brasilense strains AZR 15 and AZR 37 from Kuttanad soils are highly effective for rice, vegetables and nursery plants. The strains AZ 1 and AZ 2 are effective in vegetable and nursery plants.

Method of application

Seed treatment: For treating 5-10 kg seeds, 500 g culture is required. Moisten the seeds by sprinkling water or rice-gruel water. Take 500 g culture in a plastic tray/basin, add moistened seeds, mix well and dry in shade for 30 minutes. This may be sown immediately.

Seedling root dip (for transplanted crops): Slurry of the culture is prepared by mixing 500 g culture with 50 ml of water and the roots are dipped in the slurry for 15-20 minutes before transplanting.

Soil application: Mix the culture with FYM or compost in the ratio 1:25 and apply directly in the soil.

Inoculation for paddy
Mix 2 kg of culture in 60 litres of water and soak the seeds required for 1 ha (60 kg) for 24 hours before sowing. At the time of transplanting, dip the roots of seedlings for 15-20 minutes in the culture slurry prepared by mixing 2 kg inoculum with 40 litres of water. This slurry can be used for treating seedlings required for 1 ha. Another 2 kg culture may be applied to the field along with FYM or compost.

4. Blue green algae(BGA)
Mainly recommended for wetland rice cultivation. However, the use of this biofertilizer is not feasible in acidic soils with pH below 6.0. It is available as carrier-based inoculum and it fixes N about 25-30 kg/ha under ideal conditions.

Method of application: Direct broadcasting in the rice fields @ 10 kg/ha one week after transplanting the seedlings.

5. Azolla
It is suitable for wetland rice cultivation. The required quantity of azolla will have to be raised in the farmers' field itself. Fixes N about 25 to 30 kg / ha.

Method of application: Apply fresh azolla @ 10 t/ha before transplanting the rice seedlings at the time of ploughing.

6. Phosphate solubilising bacteria and fungi
Recommended mainly for upland crops raised in neutral and slightly alkaline soils. Available as carrier-based inoculum. Enables the efficient utilization of cheaper sources of phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate by crop plants in neutral and alkaline soils.
Method of application: Seed treatment and direct application.

7. Vesicular / arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM/ AM)
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza is mostly recommended for upland especially for raising container and tissue culture plantlets and transplanted crops. It mainly improves the uptake of available P by inoculated plants. There is also an enhanced absorption of water and other nutrients such as N and K and certain micronutrients. Mycorrhiza inoculation can improve the survival and establishment of tissue culture plantlets under field conditions. Also induces better resistance against certain soil borne plant pathogens. It is commercially available as granular inoculum consisting of infected roots and soil with mycorrhizal spores. It is given as soil application.

VAM fungus Glomus microcarpum var. microcarpum is suitable for tropical tuber crops. The inoculation can be done by placing inoculum (3-5 g/sett) beneath the sett before planting. The rate of spore load in the inoculum should be to the tune of 50 to 400 spores per 100 g soil medium. Method of application is the rooted infected cutting technique.

Application techniques of biofertilisers

1. Seed treatment
Five hundred grams of commercially available inoculum will be required for treatment of seeds for one-hectare area. For this, thick slurry of the carrier-based inoculum is initially prepared by mixing 500 g of the inoculum in 1.25 litre of water. The stickiness of the biofertilizer on seed surface can be significantly improved by using 10% jagerry solution or 5% sugar solution supplemented with 40% boiled and cooled gum arabic solution or rice-gruel water. The required quantity of seed material is then gently mixed with this slurry by taking care not to damage the seed coat. The treated seeds are spread evenly over a gunny bag and dried in shade and sown immediately in moist soil. Under no circumstances, the treated seeds are exposed to direct sunlight for a longer period of time since the UV rays of solar radiation will reduce significantly the population of inoculated bacteria on seed surface.

2. Seedling treatment
This method of application is mainly recommended for transplanted crops. In this procedure, the roots of seedlings to be transplanted are dipped in loose water slurry of the biofertilizer (500 g in 2.5 litre of water) for 20 minutes, prior to transplanting.

3. Soil application
Soil application is generally recommended for all types of biofertilisers except Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium. The method is to apply the biofertilizer after mixing with dried FYM, compost or vermicompost @ 1:25. For crops of six-month duration, the recommended dose is 1-2 kg/ha. This can be increased to 2-4 kg/ha for crops of more than six-month duration. For perennial crops, 10 to 25 g of the biofertilizer is to be applied in the root zone during the first year and 25 to 50 g during subsequent years. This can be done at the time of sowing, transplanting or during intercultivation.

Factors influencing the efficient use of bio-fertilisers in Kerala

1. Use adequate quantity of organic manure (as per the recommendation for each crop) along with biofertiliser application. This is essential to ensure better survival, growth and activity of the introduced microbial inoculums in acidic soils.

2. Liming is essential if the soil pH is below 6.0. In moderately acidic soils, the application of lime @ 250 kg/ha is recommended along with biofertilizer treatment.

3. Irrigation is essential during summer months after biofertilizer application to ensure the survival of the introduced microbial inoculum in the soil.

4. Since N biofertilisers can supplement only a part of the nitrogen requirement of the inoculated plant, low dose of nitrogen and full doses of phosphorus and potassium as per the recommendation may be applied. This is essential to ensure better plant growth and yield. Similarly, in the case of P biofertilisers, the full doses of nitrogen and potassium should be applied. However, there should be a gap of at least one week between biofertilizer and chemical fertilizer applications.

5. Use only biofertilisers, which are manufactured as per the quality parameters prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards. In the case of bacterial biofertilisers, the prescribed standard is that in the final product, the population of the desired bacterium should not be less than ten million per gram of the carrier material and there should not be any contamination with other microorganisms when examined at 1:100000 dilution. Further, it should have a shelf life of at least six months.

6. The commercially available biofertiliser should always be used before the expiry date marked on the culture packet.

7. Topdressing with super phosphate 25 kg/ha 10 days after inoculation of BGA will enhance its growth under field conditions.

8. Since the occurrence of green algae in rice field can affect the normal growth and proliferation of BGA, the population of green
algae should be controlled initially by applying copper sulphate @ 4 kg/ha.

9. In moderately acidic soils of pH around 6.5, root nodulation by Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium can be improved by pelleting with finely powdered calcium carbonate. (See recommendation under cowpea)

10. Application of P2O5 @ 1 kg/ha is recommended once in 4 days in P2O5 deficient soils to ensure good growth of azolla. The development of a reddish purple colour in azolla is a typical symptom of P2O5 deficiency.

11. Since a floating population of azolla can release its bound nutrients only during decay in the soil, it is essential to incorporate azolla in the soil prior to the transplanting of rice seedlings.

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Liming

Lime

Acid soils are characterised by high saturation of the exchange complex with hydrogen and aluminium. Crops grown in such soils suffer due to unavailability of most plant nutrients, especially calcium. Application of liming materials increases the availability of nutrients and alleviates Ca deficiency.

Liming materials
Burnt lime [CaO], slaked lime [Ca(OH)2], powdered limestone [CaCO3] and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] are some of the materials used as sources of calcium.
Management

1. In acidic submerged soils, flooding brings about rise in soil pH and hence response to lime is less marked.

2. Legumes are benefited most by liming.

3. For better results, liming materials should be incorporated into the soil.

4. For seasonal crops and in situations where immediate results are required, burnt lime or slaked lime may be used. For perennial crops, powdered limestone or dolomite is sufficient.

5. Extreme care should be taken while broadcasting burnt lime and slaked lime as they can cause scorching of leaves.

6. In case of wetland rice, drain the field prior to lime application and re-flood after 24 hours. Flushing the soil by sequential flooding and draining will help to wash out the displaced acid from the soil.

7. In extreme case of calcium deficiency, a 1% solution of calcium chloride may be applied by foliar spraying.

Neutralizing value of liming materials

Liming material	Chemical formula	Neutralizing value
Calcium carbonate (powdered lime stone)	CaCO3	100
Burnt lime (quick lime)	CaO	179
Slaked lime	Ca(OH)2	136
Dolomite	CaMg(CO3)2	109

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Plant protection

Cultural

Cultural Control:
"Cultural control is the deliberate manipulation of environment to make it less favorable for pests by disrupting their reproductive cycles, eliminating their food, or making it more favorable for their natural enemies"
Cultural control is an important component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). It is one of the oldest and most effective methods of pest suppression. Cultural control methods are widely used in pest management systems. These methods comprise of regular gardening operations, the purpose is to destroy pests or to prevent them from causing injury to gardens. Examples Include cultivated techniques, adjustment of planting dates, choice of cultivars (resistant varieties), general crop hygiene, manipulation of harvesting procedures, crop rotation, crop covers, etc. Below are descriptions of some of these methods to help you choose ways to help deter pests in your garden.

Variety Selection:
Choose resistant plant varieties.
Planting Dates:

Crop Rotation:
Crop rotation can be very important in fighting disease and pests. Rotate crops year to year. Do not plant the same things in the same place year after year

Trapping Crops:
Some pests prefer certain plants to others. By planting sacrificial plants, you can keep away pests from the plants you want.

Row Covers:
A floating row cover is a physical barrier used to protect crops, particularly annual vegetables. Floating row covers should be used when the damage is being done by the insect larvae. It prevents the adult flying insect from landing and depositing eggs on the plants. The floating row cover should be placed over the entire crop at transplanting or seeding time and it must cover the plants

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Chemical

Pesticide application has become more complex over the past several years. The number of different kinds of pesticides available for use has increased. Effects on wildlife and the environment are now known to be important considerations. Highly toxic pesticides require special equipment and safety measures. Pesticide applicators, therefore, need to know more about safety and proper use than ever before. New applicators must know to protect the environment from pesticide contamination, the proper handling of pesticides, and protection from personal injury.

Types of Pesticides

A pesticide is any chemical which is used by man to control pests. The pests may be insects, plant diseases, fungi, weeds, nematodes, snails, slugs, etc. Therefore, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, etc., are all types of pesticides. Some pesticides must only contact (touch) the pest to be deadly. Others must be swallowed to be effective. The way that each pesticide attacks a pest suggests the best way to apply it; to reach and expose all the pests. For example, a pesticide may be more effective and less costly as a bait, rather than as a surface spray.

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Insecticides

Insecticides are chemicals used to control insects. Often the word "insecticide" is confused with the word "pesticide." It is, however, just one of many types of pesticides. An insecticide may kill the insect by touching it or it may have to be swallowed to be effective. Some insecticides kill both by touch and by swallowing. Insecticides called Systemics may be absorbed, injected, or fed into the plant or animal to be protected. When the insect feeds on this plant or animal, it ingests the systemic chemical and is killed.

Broad Spectrum. Insecticides vary in the numbers of different kinds of insects they kill. Some insecticides kill only a few kinds of insects. Sometimes you can choose these insecticides when you wish to kill only one insect pest and not other beneficial insects in the area. Many insecticides are general purpose or wide range killers. These "broad spectrum" pesticides are used when several different kinds of insects are a problem. One chemical can kill them all. No broad spectrum insecticide kills all insects; each varies as to the kinds of insects it controls.

Narrow Spectrum. While many insecticides are broad spectrum, killing a wide variety of animals by attacking a system common to all, such as the nervous system, a new group of insecticides are much more selective. The chitin inhibitors only affect animals with chitin in their exoskeleton (i.e. insects). Growth regulators are even more specific. They affect certain groups of species that have a particular hormone. Finally, pheromones are the most restrictive because they react with only one species or one sex of a single species.

Chitin synthesis inhibitors interfere with the development and molting of immature insects causing their death. Chitin is the primary structural chemical in an insects body wall. An immature insect treated with a chitin inhibitor dies the next time it attempts to molt.

Insect growth regulators or IGRs mimic the action of an insect's naturally occurring juvenile hormone. They interfere with certain normal processes and prevent immature insects from completing development into normal reproductive adults. The effects of IGRs on insects include abnormal molting, twisted wings, loss of mating behavior, and sometimes death to embryos in eggs. IGRs attack a growth process found only in insects, thus there is a great margin of safety for humans and other vertebrates. However, one disadvantage is that growth regulators act slowly, since they do not kill the insect until it molts into an adult.

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Pheromones

Pheromones are naturally produced chemicals used by animals to communicate to each other. There are three basic types of pheromones. Aggregation pheromones attract many individuals together, for example, a site where food may be plentiful. Sex pheromones are used by one sex of a species to attract a mate. Trail pheromones are deposited by walking insects, such as ants, so that others can follow. Synthetic pheromones produced in laboratories mimic these natural chemicals. They are used to attract pest insects into traps, disrupt mating, and monitor populations of insects. Because they do not kill insects, they are often not considered to be pesticides.

Short Term vs. Residual. Insecticides also vary in how long they last as a killing agent. Some break down almost immediately into nontoxic by -products. These "short term" chemicals are very good in situations where the insects do not return or where long-term exposure could injure non-target plants or animals. For example, short-term insecticides are often used in homes and dwellings where people and domestic animals might be exposed. Other insecticides remain active killers for a fairly long period of time. These "residual" pesticides are very useful when the insects are a constant problem and where they will not be an environmental and/or health hazard. For example, residuals are often used for fly control in livestock buildings or for termite control in wooden structures.

Miticides and Acaricides

Miticides (or Acaricides) are chemicals used to control mites (tiny Insecticides spider-like animals) and ticks. The chemicals usually must contact the mites or ticks to be effective. These animals are so numerous and small, that great care must be used to completely cover the area on which the mites live. Miticides are very similar in action to insecticides and often the same pesticide kills both insects and mites. The terms "broad spectrum,""short term," and "residual" are also used

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Fungicides

Fungicides are chemicals used to control the fungi which cause molds, rots, and plant diseases. All fungicides work by coming in contact with the fungus, because fungi do not "swallow" in the normal sense. Therefore, most fungicides are applied over a large surface area to try to directly hit every fungus. Some fungicides may be systemic in that the plant to be protected may be fed or injected with the chemical. The chemical then moves throughout the plant, killing the fungi. to describe miticides.

Protectant vs. Eradicant. There are two basic approaches in the use of fungicides. One is designed to prevent the plant from getting the disease. These fungicides are used as "protectants" and are similar in purpose to polio and smallpox vaccinations for humans. They are applied before the disease gets a start. This type of fungicide is very useful when a particular disease or group of diseases are likely to attack a plant or crop, year after year. Protectants, for example, have often been used as a routine precaution on fruit and vegetable crops.

Most protectant fungicides are fungistatic. This means they prevent or inhibit fungal growth. Once the fungistatic action ceases, the controlled fungus may grow again or produce spores. Thus, a protectant fungicide may have to be applied at regular intervals to continue the protection from infection.

The other type of fungicide kills the disease after it appears on (or in) the plant. These fungicides, called "eradicants," are like penicillin or other antibiotics which cure diseases in humans after the sickness appears. Eradicants are less common than protectants because once the fungus is established in a plant, it is often difficult to destroy. Eradicants are often used when protectants aren't available, aren't applied in time, or are too expensive. Eradicants are also applied when the disease appears unexpectedly on a plant or in an area. For example, a common use is on fruit and vegetables when the protectant spray wasn't applied on time to prevent infection. Eradicants are also used by orchardists in combatting diseases of fruit trees, such as apple scab.

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Herbicides

Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants. These chemicals are a bit different from other pesticides because they are used to kill or slow the growth of some plants, rather than to protect them. Some herbicides kill every plant they contact, while others kill only certain plants.

Nonselective herbicides are toxic to all plants. These are often used when no plants are wanted in an area. For example, nonselective herbicides could be used for clearing under guardrails or for total control of weeds in industrial areas.
Selective herbicides kill some plants with little or no injury to other plants. Usually selective types will kill either broadleaved plants or grassy plants. These are useful for lawns, golf courses or in areas with desirable trees. Some very selective herbicides may kill only certain plants in a group; for example, crabgrass killers on lawns.

Preplanting vs. Preemergence vs. Postemergence.The timing of an herbicide application is important. Care must be used to get the job done effectively without injuring desirable plants. The directions on the label tell you when to apply the herbicide for best results. Preplanting treatments are made before the crop is planted. These chemicals may be used in seed beds or incorporated into the soil before planting.

Any treatment made before the crop and weed appears is called preemergence. The application may be made before both the crop and weeds appear, or after the crop appears but before the weeds appear. The label or directions will state "preemergence to the crop,""preemergence to the weeds," or "preemergence to both crop and weeds."

When the herbicide treatment is made after the crop or weeds appear, it is called postemergence. Postemergence applications must be very selective. They must control the weeds but leave the crop unharmed. Often, the chemical will be applied postemergent to the crop but preemergent to the weeds.

Growth Regulators and Harvest Aids

A plant growth regulator (or plant regulator) increases, decreases or changes normal growth or reproduction in a plant. Fertilizers and other nutrients are not included. Some growth regulators are used to move up or move back the normal harvest date for the crop. Others are used to obtain better quality and/or yield of the crop. Electric power utilities could use growth regulators to slow the growth of a tree threatening power lines, thus saving the tree from being cut.
Defoliants and desiccants are pesticide materials generally referred to as harvest aids. A defoliant causes the leaves of a plant to drop off early, but does not kill the plant. A desiccant draws moisture from a plant, killing the plant foliage.

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Rodenticides

Rodenticides are chemicals used to control rats, mice, bats and other rodents. Chemicals which control other mammals, birds, and fish are also grouped in this category by regulatory agencies. Most rodenticides are stomach poisons and are often applied as baits. Even rodenticides which act by contacting the pest are usually not applied over large surfaces because of the hazard to domestic animals or desirable wildlife. They are usually applied in limited areas such as runways, known feeding places, or as baits.

Nematicides Molluscicides Repellents

Nematicides are chemicals used to control nematodes. Nematodes are tiny hir-like worms, many of which live in the soil and feed on plant roots. Very few of these worms live above ground. Usually, soil fumigants are used to control nematodes in the soil. However, a few contact insecticides and fungicides are also effective against these tiny worms.

Molluscicides are chemicals used to control snails and slugs. Usually the chemicals must be eaten by the pest to work. Baits are often used to attract and kill snails or slugs in an area.

A repellent is a pesticide that makes a site or food unattractive to a target pest. They are registered in the same way other pesticides are and must be used according to the label. Insect repellents are available as aerosols and lotions and can be applied to skin, clothing, or plants to repel biting and nuisance insects. Vertebrate repellents are available as concentrates to be mixed with water, powders, and granules. They can be sprayed or painted on nursery crops, ornamental plantings, orchards, vineyards, vegetables, and seeds. Repelling deer, dogs, birds, raccoons, and others can protect sites from damage.

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Handling and mixing

Take precautions to avoid exposure when wettable powders, dust or granules are added to the sprayer tank. When you add materials to the sprayer tank, air is forced out and carries some of the pesticide particles with it. If the solvent in the pesticide is toxic or flammable (or both), be sure the mixing operation is performed in an area where ventilation is adequate. The addition of small amounts of materials such as emulsifiers or thickeners will drastically alter the physical properties of the spray solution. Therefore, the applicator should check the pesticide label to be sure she or he is operating according to instructions.

Many types of solvents, some of which are chlorinated, are used in the pesticide formulation processes. Vapors of chlorinated solvents are very dangerous to breathe. They can cause a "high," dizziness, or even unconsciousness. They also can cause permanent damage to the kidney, liver, and nervous system in workers exposed to the vapours for a prolonged time.

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Field applications

Always be aware of the meteorological conditions existing during pesticide application. Loss of spray from a treated area increases during high winds or low humidity. Usually, low wind and high humidity conditions are most prevalent before 10 a.m. and after 6 p.m.

Avoid spraying near beehives, lakes, streams, pastures, houses, schools, playgrounds, hospitals or sensitive crops whenever possible. If these areas must be sprayed, do not spray during windy or low humidity conditions and always spray downwind from the sensitive area.

If possible, begin spraying in the end of the field that will permit any drift from the sprayer to be blown away from the next area to be treated. Likewise with airblast sprayers; direct the air blast from the sprayer with the prevailing wind and away from the next area to be treated. These two procedures will minimize the amount of pesticide that will be blown onto the operator. Remember, these are only guidelines and are intended to supplement the good judgment of the pesticide operator.
To minimize drift hazards, use the lowest pressure possible, the lowest boom height and the largest spray tips, and add thickeners (if the pesticide label permits) in areas where drift is likely to be particularly hazardous.

Be alert for nozzle clogging and changes in nozzle patterns. If nozzles clog or other troubles occur in the field, shut the sprayer off and move to an unsprayed area before dismounting from the sprayer to work on it. If nozzles must be cleaned in the field, use a toothbrush or a toothpick for cleaning - never a metal object. A metal object can damage the orifice in the spray tip and significantly alter the spray pattern. We recommend carrying extra spray tips on the sprayer so that plugged tips can be replaced with clean ones. Never try to unclog a nozzle by blowing through it.

Check the pesticide label for re-entry and preharvest intervals. The re-entry interval is the elapsed time after a pesticide application before workers can safely re-enter a field. The preharvest interval is the elapsed time between a pesticide application and harvest of the crop.

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Equipment cleaning and storage

Trained personnel should thoroughly clean the inside and outside of mixing, loading, and application equipment immediately after use. People who clean contaminated equipment should wear proper protective clothing, including rubber boots, a rubber apron, goggles, and possibly a respirator. A specific area should be designated for cleaning operations. Use a rack or cement apron with a well-designed sump to catch contaminated wash water and pesticides. The cleanup process is important because many chemicals will rapidly corrode some metals and may also react with succeeding chemicals, thus possibly causing a loss of effectiveness.

To clean a sprayer, mix about two pounds of detergent per 40 gallons of water in the tank. Circulate this mixture throughout the bypass or agitator nozzles for 30 minutes and then drain, allowing some solution to pass through the booms or nozzles. If phenoxy herbicides such as 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, or brush killer were used in the sprayer, rinse with an ammonia or charcoal solution.

To make an ammonia rinse, fill the tank one-third to one-half full and add two quarts of household ammonia per 25 gallons of water. Circulate the solution and allow a small amount to flow through the nozzles. Allow the remaining solution to stand overnight to neutralize any herbicide remaining in the equipment. Then pump the solution through the nozzles. After rinsing with detergent or ammonia, flush thoroughly with clean water.

When the sprayer is to be stored for a prolonged time, add one to five gallons of lightweight oil (about one gallon of oil per 40 gallons of water) before the final flushing. As the water is pumped from the sprayer, the oil will leave a protective coating on the inside of the tank, pump and plumbing.

To prevent corrosion, remove nozzle tips and screens and store them in a can of light oil, such as diesel fuel or kerosene. Follow directions in the owner's manual regarding the proper procedures for storing engine-equipped sprayers. Before storing the sprayer, all lines, hoses, valves and the pump should be inspected for damaged parts or leaks. Damaged parts should be replaced before the sprayer is stored.

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Storage of chemicals

Store pesticides in a locked and posted facility where children or other untrained people cannot get to them. Read the labels on pesticide containers for correct storage procedures. Select a storage site high enough that damage from flooding will be unlikely and downwind and downhill from sensitive areas such as houses, play areas and ponds. Pesticide storage facilities should also be located away from homes and livestock facilities to avoid or minimize contamination.

Pesticide and expended pesticide containers are best stored in a separate building, room, or enclosure, depending on the size of the pesticide inventory. The storage area should be on the first floor to minimize contamination from a possible leaky container, and the storage area must keep the pesticides dry, cool and out of direct sunlight. The latter requirements are necessary because some pesticides are rendered useless if they become too hot or damp, if they freeze, or if they are exposed to ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Do not store pesticides near food for human consumption, animal feed, fertilizer, seed, veterinary supplies, or other stored products. To prevent contamination or to avoid accidentally using the wrong pesticide, store different pesticides in separate locations within the storage area.

Store pesticides only in the original container, with the label plainly visible. Never store pesticides in anything used as a food or drink container, even for a short time. Storage of pesticides in such containers is a common cause of accidental poisoning.

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Preparing the sprayer

Before a spraying operation is started, rinse out the sprayer; remove and clean all nozzles, nozzle screens and strainers. Make sure strainers and nozzle screens are 50 mesh or larger when wettable powders are used. Check all lines, valves, seals and the tank after filling the sprayer with water and during calibration to be sure there are no leaks in the spray system. For the operator's safety, replace weather-cracked or worn hoses. Adjust the nozzle height and spacing as suggested by the nozzle manufacturer or as specified on the pesticide label. These requirements differ for a given pest or crop.

Only water that is clean enough should be used in the sprayer. A small amount of silt or sand in the water rapidly wears pumps and other parts of the sprayer system.

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Disposal of pesticides and containers

To avoid having to dispose of a tank load of the wrong pesticide, check out the job carefully before selecting the pesticide. After you have selected the proper pesticide, mix only enough for the particular job. Preventing a pesticide surplus is the best way to prevent a disposal problem.

Despite your best efforts, however, you cannot always avoid surplus pesticides, and you must take steps to dispose of them properly.

If you mix too much pesticide for a job, try to find other areas with the same pest problem and use any extra tank mix or rinse water on these areas. In some cases, small amounts of surplus pesticide can be diluted and reapplied to the treated area. Take extreme care to prevent excessive residues, especially with herbicides, by making sure that the total application rate does not exceed the maximum rate for which the pesticide is labeled.

To dispose of large quantities of pesticide, contact nearest krishibhavan for assistance in properly disposing of excess pesticides in an environmentally safe manner.

So-called empty pesticide containers are not really empty. They still contain small amounts of pesticides, even after they have been properly rinsed. All containers, regardless of their type, should be rinsed three times before disposal. The rinse water should be dumped into the sprayer tank. Otherwise, the rinse water must be treated as a surplus pesticide and disposed of properly. Rinse water should never be dumped on the ground. Use the following rinse-and-drain procedure to prepare containers for disposal:

Empty the container into the spray tank and drain in a vertical position for 30 seconds.

Refill the container one-fifth to one-fourth full with rinse water.

Rinse thoroughly, pour into the spray tank and drain in a vertical position for 30 seconds.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 until the container has been rinsed three times. Empty the container into the spray tank and drain in a vertical position for 30 seconds.
Rinsed containers should not be used for any other purpose.

Disposal of any pesticide container or pesticide-related waste by open dumping or open burning is illegal.

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Bio control

The biological control of pests involves using natural enemies of the pest to control it - instead of chemical agents like insecticides and herbicides. Not only should this be safer for the environment, but - once established - the natural enemies might be able to sustain their population avoiding the need for future treatments.

Most of the species that we consider pests are plants ("weeds") or animals (especially insects) that have invaded a new habitat without being accompanied by the natural enemies that kept them in check in their original home. With increasing international travel and trade, this problem becomes increasingly severe.

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IPM

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a process consisting of the balanced use of cultural, biological, and chemical procedures that are environmentally compatible, economically feasible, and socially acceptable to reduce pest populations to tolerable levels.

Integrated means that many strategies are used to avoid or solve a pest problem. These strategies come from different disciplines, such as disease information from plant pathologists, weed information from agronomists, and insect information from entomologists.

Pests are unwanted organisms that are a nuisance to man or domestic animals, and can cause injury to humans, animals, plants, structures, and possessions.

Management is the process of making decisions in a systematic way to keep pests from reaching intolerable levels. Small populations of pests can often be tolerated; total eradication is often not necessary.

Reasons for having a broader approach to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) han just the use of chemicals.

Keep a Balanced Ecosystem. Every ecosystem, made up of living things and their non-living environment, has a balance; the actions of one creature in the ecosystem usually affect other, different organisms. The introduction of chemicals into the ecosystem can change this balance, destroying certain species and allowing other species (sometimes pests themselves) to dominate. Beneficial insects such as the ladybird beetle and lacewing larvae, both of which consume pests, can be killed by pesticides, leaving few natural mechanisms of pest control.

Pesticides Can be Ineffective. Chemical pesticides are not always effective. Pests can become resistant to pesticides. In fact, some 600 cases of pests developing pesticide resistance have been documented to date, including common lamb's-quarter, house flies, the Colorado potato beetle, the Indian meal moth, Norway rats, and the greenhouse whitefly. Furthermore, pests may survive in some situations where the chemical does not reach pests, is washed off, is applied at an improper rate, or is applied at an improper life stage of the pest.

IPM Is Not Difficult. Although some of the terms and ideas may be new to you, practicing IPM is not difficult. Believe it or not, you will have done much of the "work" for an IPM approach if you've figured out the problem (the pest), determined the extent of the damage, and decided on the action to take. These steps are the same ones used in IPM.

Save Money. IPM can save money through avoiding crop loss (due to pests), and avoiding unnecessary pesticide expense. For example, farmers in Kuttanad have saved more than half there expense for plant protection after the inception of ORP for pest surveillance and forecasting.

Promote a Healthy Environment. We have much to learn about the persistence of chemicals in the environment, and their effect on living creatures. However, more cases of contaminated groundwater appear each year, and disposal of containers and unused pesticides still pose challenges for applicators. Even though long-term documentation on the effects of all pesticides is still unavailable, it is generally agreed that fewer pesticides means less risk to surface water and groundwater, and less hazard to wildlife and humans.

Maintain a Good Public Image. Recent public outcry about the use of growth regulators and the presence of pesticide residues on produce has heightened pesticide applicator awareness of the level of public concern about chemicals. Consumers are pressuring food stores, which in turn are pressuring producers, for produce that has been grown with as few pesticides as possible. Growing food under integrated pest management can help allay public concerns. Structural pest control professionals can suggest improvements in housekeeping or structural modifications as substitutes for chemical control.

The Basic Steps of IPM
All of the components of an IPM approach can be grouped into four major steps. The first step is taking preventative measures to prevent pest buildup, the second is monitoring, the third step is assessing the pest situation, and the fourth is determining the best action to take.

Preventative Measures
Many IPM practices are used before a pest problem develops to prevent or stall the buildup of pests.

Cultural Controls are those that disrupt the environment of the pest. Plowing, crop rotation, removal of infected plant material, sanitation of greenhouse equipment, and effective manure management are all cultural practices that are employed to deprive pests of a comfortable habitat. The management of urban and industrial pests has improved when sanitation programs have been improved, pest harborages eliminated, garbage pickup frequency increased, or when lights are installed that do not attract insects.

Structural Modifications - by preventing support timbers from soil contact, damage from several different wood destroying pests can be avoided. Wood absorbs moisture and is more susceptible to attack by carpenter ants and termites when in direct contact with the soil.

Construction Site Sanitation - removing tree stumps and lumber scraps from construction sites, which are prime food sources for subterranean termites, can prevent problems in the future.

Biological Controls - using natural enemies (biological control agents) to keep pests in check can be put into place before pest problems increase. Examples of biological control agents are beneficial mites that feed on mite pests in orchards, the milky spore disease that kills harmful soil grubs, and Encarsia formosa , a wasp that parasitises the greenhouse whitefly. Many biological control agents are commercially available.

Physical Barriers such as netting over small fruits and screening in greenhouses can prevent crop loss. Physical barriers are important in termite, housefly, and rodent control.

Use of Pheromones (natural insect scents) has become widely used in pest management. Sometimes a manufactured "copy" of the pheromone that a female insect emits to attract mates can be used to confuse males and prevent mating. This technique is used in curbing damage from the grape berry moth.

Pest-Resistant Varieties are those that are less susceptible than other varieties to certain insects and diseases. Use of resistant varieties often means that growers do not need to apply as many pesticides as with susceptible varieties. Potato growers control the golden nematode by planting resistant cultivars. Apple growers can save up to eight fungicide applications a year by growing Liberty and Freedom cultivars, which resist diseases. Farmers growing alfalfa and wheat keep several pests at bay by planting resistant varieties.

Once a pest manager has taken precautions to prevent pest infestations, it is important to watch regularly for the appearance of insects, weeds, diseases, and other pests.

Monitoring (Scouting)
Monitoring pests involves:
regular checking of the area;
early detection of pests;
proper identification of pests;
identification of the effects of biological control agents.

Regular checking of a warehouse, bakery, restaurant, field, greenhouse, golf course, or other areas and early detection of pests can function together like an early warning system for pests, helping to avoid or prevent a pest problem.

Proper identification of pests is an extremely important prerequisite to handling problems effectively. For example, the brown banded and German cockroach can be easily confused with each other. Identification is important because certain management practices may control only one species and not the other. Correct identification enables you to manage the real source of the problem and avoid merely treating the symptoms (or controlling non-pests). Some pests cause similar evidence. Unless the pest is identified, the control program may have the wrong pest as its target. Identification enables you to cure the pest problem and avoid injury to non-target organisms, particularly if you:
use a pesticide that is specific to the pest;
control the pest effectively during the most susceptible stage of its
life cycle;
consider the use of a non-chemical control.

Identifying the effects of biological control means knowing which creatures are helpful and determining if pests have been affected by the beneficial organisms. Sometimes pests are kept in check naturally, and at other times the pest populations increase sharply.

Assessment is the process of determining the potential for pest populations to reach an economic threshold or an intolerable level. Is a grower likely to suffer financially? Is the pest likely to transmit a disease? How can you tell? There are important differences between the assessment of crop pests and urban pests.

Forecasting can help you determine if weather conditions will be favorable for the development of diseases and insect pests. For example, by "plugging in" values (such as the number of rainy days and the temperatures for those days), growers can predict outbreaks and spray only when conditions are favorable for diseases. Growers who have kept good records of pests in previous years can use these records to help determine if problems such as weeds, insects, and diseases will reoccur. They might be able, for example, to apply the most effective herbicides at the proper time for early control of a problem.

Thresholds, or more specifically economic thresholds, are levels that mark the highest point a pest population can reach without risk of economic loss. Populations above these thresholds can reach the economic injury level, where they cause enough damage for the grower to lose money. At the economic injury level, the cost of control is equal to the loss of yield or quality that would result otherwise.

Thresholds for many pests and crops have been scientifically determined. The advantage of thresholds is that if a pest has not reached threshold, there is no risk of economic loss. Therefore, there is no need to spray. Once the pest density (number of pests per unit area) has reached threshold, action is justified. The costs of control will be less than equal to the estimated losses that the pests would cause if justify uncontrolled.

Urban pest thresholds are often related to aesthetics rather than economic considerations. Where health concerns or individual sensitivities exist, the tolerable level of the pest may be zero. A zero threshold forces action, even if only one pest has been detected. Zero thresholds exist in hospitals, food production, warehousing, and retail facilities.

Action (Control Measures)
Once a pest has reached the economic threshold, or intolerable level, action should be taken. In some situations, cultural controls can destroy pests. One example is early harvesting to avoid pest problems, which prevents crop loss and can sometimes be more economical than a pesticide application.

Chemical pesticides are used as a control measure when no other strategies will bring the pest population under the threshold. In fact, the success of waiting until a pest reaches threshold usually hinges on the availability of a pesticide that will bring the pest populations down quickly.

In summary, an IPM approach means that pest managers use multiple tactics to prevent pest buildups, monitor pest populations, assess the damage, and make informed management decisions, keeping in mind that pesticides should be used judiciously.

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Weed management

Integrated pest management of weeds, like insect IPM, focuses on prevention, beginning with identification of weed species and controlling the population in the field.

Localized use of weed control tools may be necessary in areas with high concentrations of perennial weeds

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Prevention

Avoid weed establishment; eliminate individual survivors.
Employ sanitary procedures; prevent weed spread.
Clean equipment between sites or infestations.
Examine nursery plants, seed, and imported soil or media.
Screen irrigation water where weed seed contaminates surface water transported in canals and rivers or stored in lakes or ponds.
Control weeds and seed sources around the field or site.
Establish national and state weed laws and noxious weed control programs.

Biological
control weeds using organisms which feed/infect/pest on the weed.

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Cultural

Integrate numerous components to minimize impact of weeds.

Select manageable fields (identify weeds and choose crop according to feasibility of weed management strategies)

Rotate crops (disrupt weed life cycles or suppress weeds in competitive crop followed by planting a noncompetitive crop).

Plant competitive fallow crops in rotation to improve soils and crop management. Consider legumes to supplement nitrogen requirements.

Consider specific vegetation which remain uniform on soil surface; either perennial or large-seeded crops can be planted through undisturbed mulch.

Alter planting dates (plant for maximum growth or delay planting to control first weed flush).

Transplant slow-growing crops.

Place and time of fertilizer application, especially nitrogen is highly decisive. Band or spot fertilizer beside plant or seed (reduces availability to surface-germinating weeds). Time additional top dressings for maximum crop growth or to minimize weeds.

Develop crop canopy that shades weeds, suppresses weed germination.

Select crops or varieties that form canopy quickly.

Space plants in equidistant (triangular) arrangements and vary density depending on crop management constraints or harvest requirements.

Interplant crops in space and time.

Combine broadleaf and taller, narrow leaf crops.

Relay plantings or harvest short-duration crops within longer maturing crops
Manage appropriate living mulch (grass or legume) between perennial crop rows.
Improve pasture management by reseeding and/or fertilizing with or without control measures to reduce weed infestation (weeds often are a sign of poor management).
Apply mulch or geo-textiles

Solarisation Thin plastic secured tightly over loose, moist soil for 10 to 12 weeks will suppress weed infestations and other pests during hot season; data unavailable for Oregon.

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Mechanical

Weed debris turned under; annual weeds controlled; perennial weeds suppressed if repeated every 10 to 14 days.

Tillage practices

Seedbed preparation/planting (plough down/mix debris). Use Plough/ rotovater/ discharrow (compacts wet soils).

Cultivators for weed control. Sweeps, rolling cultivators, finger weeders, push hoe, rotary hoes, etc.

Hand pulling or hand hoeing.

Minimum or no-till systems (often requires specialized equipment).
Seedbed preparation/planting accomplished in one operation where trash is separated, soil loosened, and crop planted.

Weed control achieved with herbicides or sometimes cultivators, depending on debris.

Flaming (requires temporal difference between crop and weed growth).

Water management (drip placement or timing to reduce weed growth).

Stale seedbed (planting after controlling first weed flush).

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Herbicidal

Requires precision calculations, equipment, and application.

Selectivity

Crop naturally tolerates herbicide (internal selectivity).

Placement of herbicide prevents crop exposure.

Timing of application to avoid susceptible stage of growth.

Labeling requires extensive testing.

Toxicology includes acute, subacute, and chronic toxicity; teratology (fetus); reproduction, mutagenicity (cancer); neurotoxicity (nerves); and metabolism studies along with worker exposure.

Environmental fate includes breakdown, groundwater, ecological effects on plants and animals.

Tolerance assessment considers normal application procedures and preharvest intervals for assessing residues within food products.

 

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What is Barometric Pressure ?

October 30, 2014, 11:40 pm

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What is Barometric Pressure ?
Barometric pressure (also known as atmospheric pressure) is the force exerted by the atmosphere at a given point.  It is known as the "weight of the air". A barometer measures barometric pressure.  Measurement of barometric pressure can be expressed in millibars(mb) or in inches or millimeters of mercury (Hg). Normal pressure at sea level is 1013.3 millibars or 29.92 inches of mercury.  Fluctuations in barometric pressure are usually a sign of weather conditions. A rise in pressure usually means improving weather while falling pressure may reflect impending inclement weather.  Barometric pressures will also vary with altitude and moisture.

Constituents of the Air

The constituents of dry air can be expressed as volume percentages, which will translate to the partial pressures out of the total atmospheric pressure

Since a mole of any ideal gas occupies the same volume, it follows that the volume percentage is also the percentage by number. The average molecular mass can then be found by weighting the masses by their volume percentages above

Barometric

Barometric pressure

The barometric pressure is the reading given by a barometer. A barometer is used for determining atmospheric air pressure. The pressure is not constant; it will change depending on the altitude and the weather.

How Air Pressured is Measured
The units of measurement used are inches of  millibars and mercury. Inches of mercury are used by meteorologists to make weather reports. The millibars are used to evaluate the pressure aloft and assessing the weather. The standard pressure in millibars is 1013.2. In inches of mercury the average is 29.92.
Aneroid and Mercury Barometers
These are the instruments used to measure air pressure. A mercury barometer has a vacuum tube in a mercury dish. When the atmospheric pressure goes up, air is pushed downward in the dish.
From the tube the mercury goes into the dish. This makes the mercury rise. When air pressure goes down, the air is carried off the mercury. It departs the vacuum tube and goes back to the dish. The height is gauged in inches.
An aneroid barometer is configured differently. A thin metal cell is set up around a vacuum. One of the metal sides is connected to the device. The other is hooked up to levers and gears. These can move the pointer. When air pressure pushes the cell, the needle starts to move.
How Altitude Affects Barometric Pressure
At sea level, the atmosphere is greater over you compared to a higher altitude. Pressure is very strong at sea level and goes down as the altitude goes up. The pressure goes down an inch of mercury for every 1,000 feet increase in altitude. This equals to about 1 millibar of pressure for every 8 meters of increase in altitude.
Density and Temperature
Air mass density influences the atmospheric pressure. If the air mass is dense, the pressure is higher. If the air is not dense, the air pressure is lower. Warm air is not as dense as cool air. That is the reason why warm air goes up and cool air does not. Altitude and temperature interact, and so they affect air pressure.
Facts about High Pressure Systems
In a high pressure system, air sinks and goes down in an area. As the air goes down, warming occurs just over the dew point. In high pressure systems, clouds rarely form. High pressure moves counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere and clockwise in the northern hemisphere.
Facts about Low Pressure Systems
Low pressure systems usually herald a storm. Air goes up in a low pressure system, taking evaporated moisture from the ground. As air goes up, the air cools, reaching the dew point.
The air is condensed and turns into clouds. The clouds get heavy and become storms. They can also turn into hurricanes. Low pressure systems run clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere.
Barometric pressure is affected by several factors, from the weather to altitude levels. Although it is something people can take for granted, it has a direct influence on life, as it can determine whether the climate will be sunny or stormy.

42000 illegal Wildlife parts burnt :

November 2, 2014, 10:02 pm

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42000 illegal Wildlife parts burnt :
The Environment Ministry said "the exercise is an attempt to deplore the unethical, indiscriminate and most unlawful activities of harvest and trade of wildlife products."

The Indian authorities set fire Sunday to a stockpile of tiger skins, elephant tusks, rhino horns and other illegal animal parts in an effort to discourage wildlife smuggling in South Asia.
Animal poaching and smuggling have flourished in India, driven by black market demand from China, Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries where many believe exotic animal parts have medicinal or aphrodisiacal properties. In most cases, there is no scientific evidence that they do.
Indian Environment Minister Prakash Javadekar loaded more than 42,000 illegal animal parts Sunday into a large, blazing oven at the Delhi zoo. The parts included tiger and leopard pelts, reptile skins, rhino horns and shawls made from shahtoosh, the wool of an endangered Tibetan antelope.
Wildlife officials and members of the media crammed into the small room at the zoo to witness the inferno.
“The exercise is an attempt to deplore the unethical, indiscriminate and most unlawful activities of harvest and trade of wildlife products,” the environment ministry said in a statement, linking India's future development with the health of its biodiversity.
Indian wildlife — already struggling with habitat loss due to the expansion of human settlements — has been hit hard by poachers and the illegal trade in animal parts. India holds half of the world's estimated 3,200 wild tigers, but those numbers have declined drastically from the 5,000-7,000 tigers India was estimated to have had in the 1990s.
The once-obscure pangolin (also referred to as a scaly anteater) trade has soared, with at least 320 of the scaly mammals now seized from smugglers each year. Star tortoise seizures by customs officials have also shot up, from less than 800 a year before 1999 to more than 3,000 a year since 2002.

Trust to plant 10 lakh trees in Vizag district

November 3, 2014, 2:42 am

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Trust to plant 10 lakh trees in Vizag district VISAKHAPATNAM: The Umar Alisha Rural Development Trust on Sunday announced that it intends to plant 10 lakh trees in Visakhapatnam district in the next five years.
Speaking to media persons at Bheemunipatnam near here, the trust chairman, Umar Alisha, said the trust has consulted landscaping experts and it will plant two-year-old trees. It will also go for trees that are above 10 feet in height to ensure quick greenery. He said trust will take up the responsibility of trees for another two years.

Alisha said it is every person's responsibility to protect the environment and plant trees which provide oxygen for people and society. The trust will select trees, which can withstand wind speed of 200 kmph during cyclones.
Plantation drive coordinator Anand Kumar Pingali %said the trust has launched a website, www.makevizaggreen.com, to guide people on tree plantation.

Trees

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Our trees are disappearing. Plant a tree in your neighborhood. The life you give to these trees will serve us and our future generations

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Trees clean the air we breathe

The air we breathe is purified by trees. Trees absorb toxic pollutant s in the air and filter particulates out of the air by trapping them on their leaves and bark.10 trees can remove 20 pounds of pollutants annually.

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Trees retain & purify water

Trees retain water through their roots, prevent soil erosion, flooding, retain ground water, and also purify water as water seeps through their roots.

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Trees cool our planet

Trees hold carbon monoxide that acts as a natural coolant to our environment. This stabilizes the climate. Trees can cool our city by as much as 10%

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Trees make us happy

Being around with trees can reduce stress, and tree shaded walkways encourage people to walk and exercise more.

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Indian Ocean Basin

November 3, 2014, 9:27 am

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Indian Ocean Basin

Cumulative 0-48h TC Formation Probability
	Real-Time	Climatological	Anomaly
0-48h TCFP (%)
TC Formation Probability
	Real-Time	Climatological	Anomaly
0-24h TCFP (%)
24-48h TCFP (%)
850 hPa Relative Vorticity (x10-6 s-1) 0-24h
850 hPa Relative Vorticity (x10-6 s-1) 24-48h
Percent Pixels Colder than -40°C 0-24h
Percent Pixels Colder than -40°C 24-48h
850-200 hPa Vertical Shear (kt) 0-24h
850-200 hPa Vertical Shear (kt) 24-48h
Vertical Instability (°C) 0-24h
Vertical Instability (°C) 24-48h
Cloud-cleared Water Vapor Brightness Temperature (°C) 0-24h
Cloud-cleared Water Vapor Brightness Temperature (°C) 24-48h
850 hPa Horizontal Divergence (x10-6 s-1) 0-24h
850 hPa Horizontal Divergence (x10-6 s-1) 24-48h
MSLP (hPa) 0-24h
MSLP (hPa) 24-48h
Reynolds SST (°C) 0-24h
Reynolds SST (°C) 24-48h
850 hPa Horizontal Temp Advection (x10-6°C s-1) 0-24h
850 hPa Horizontal Temp Advection (x10-6°C s-1) 24-48h

Subbasin Areas

Time Series Products on Subbasins

	0-48h TC Formation Probability	850 hPa Relative Vorticity	Percent WV Pixels < -40°C	850-200 hPa Vertical Shear	Vertical Instability	Cloud-cleared WV Brightness Temperature	850 hPa Horizontal Divergence (x10-6 s-1)	MSLP	Reynolds SST	850 hPa Horizontal Temp Advection
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Southern Indian Ocean

The 10 things you need to know from the new IPCC climate report

November 4, 2014, 4:20 am

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The 10 things you need to know from the new IPCC climate report

By John Light

2 Nov 2014 5:29 PM 

The latest IPCC report is out, and the news is not happy.
The chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra Pachauri, called today’s report the “strongest, most robust and most comprehensive” to come out of the IPCC, which has been tracking climate change since 1988. It is “yet another wake-up call to the global community that we must act together swiftly and aggressively,” the White House said in a statement.
The report’s language is stronger than in years past: Warming is “unequivocal,” and the changes we’re seeing are pervasive, it states clearly. We must take action quickly to cut our dependence on fossil fuels, it warns. If we don’t, we’ll face “further warming and long-lasting changes in all components of the climate system, increasing the likelihood of severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems.”
As we explained last week, you may be experiencing déjà vu — that’s because there have been three IPCC reports released since September 2013. Today’s is the final installment in this cycle of reports; called the synthesis report, it’s intended to summarize and clarify the three that came before. All the parts together form the complete Fifth Assessment Report, or AR5, a comprehensive look at climate change of the sort that hasn’t been released since 2007.
Everyone involved hopes the research summarized within will guide political leaders and U.N. negotiators as they try, over the next year, to cut an emissions-reducing deal and save us all.
Though this report is breezy by IPCC standards, coming in at a mere 116 pages with a 40-page summary for policymakers, we boiled it down a bit more. Here, with some charts, are 10 key things to take away — many of them familiar from the IPCC installments that have come out over the past 13 months.
1. We humans really, truly are responsible for climate change, and ignoring that fact doesn’t make it less true. “Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history,” the report states. The atmospheric concentration of key greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — is “unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years,” the report warns, and our fossil-fuel driven economies and ever-increasing population are to blame.

2. Climate change is already happening. Each of the past three decades has been warmer than the last, and warmer than any decade since we started keeping records. Sea levels are rising. Arctic ice cover is shrinking. Crop yields are changing — more often than not, getting smaller. It has been getting wetter, and storms and heat waves are getting more intense.

3. … and it is going to get far worse: “Heat waves will occur more often and last longer … extreme precipitation events will become more intense and frequent in many regions. The ocean will continue to warm and acidify, and global mean sea level to rise,” the report states. If we stick to our current path, we could see 3.7 to 4.8 degrees Celsius of warming — or even more — by the end of the century.
These graphs show projected changes in sea-level rise and surface temperature given different emissions scenarios:

4. Much of recent warming has been in the ocean. About 90 percent of the energy that has gone into the climate system since 1971 went into the ocean. That means a warmer, expanding ocean, which fuels stronger storms. It also means rising sea levels and eroding coastlines.
5. The ocean is also becoming more acidic. By taking in so much of the carbon dioxide that humans have been spitting out since the industrial revolution, the ocean has become 26 percent more acidic and its pH level is falling. Scientists think this could have widespread and severe effects on marine life — increasingly, ocean acidification is being referred to as the “other CO2 problem.”
6. Climate change will hit developing nations particularly hard, but we are all vulnerable. Climate change will make food systems more volatile, exacerbate health problems, displace people, weaken countries’ infrastructures, and fuel conflict. It will touch every area of life. Economic growth will slow as temperatures warm, new poverty traps will be created, and we’ll find that poverty cannot be eliminated without first tackling climate change.
7. Plants and animals are even more vulnerable than we are. As climates shift, entire ecosystems will be forced to move, colliding with one another. Many plants and small animals won’t be able to move quickly enough to keep up, if global warming marches forward unabated, and will go extinct.
8. We must switch mostly to renewables by 2050, and phase out fossil fuels by 2100. To avoid the most damaging and potentially irreversible impacts of climate change (e.g., from the report: “substantial species extinction, global and regional food insecurity, consequential constraints on common human activities, and limited potential for adaptation”), we’ll need to make sure our greenhouse gas emissions are cut severely by the middle of this century. We should aim for “near zero emissions of CO2 and other long-lived GHGs by the end of the century.”
This graph shows how much our emissions could go up or down under different emissions scenarios:

9. We already have the answers we need to tackle climate change. We have the necessary technologies available, and economic growth will not be strongly affected if we take action, the report argues. As the cliché goes, all it takes is the will to act. But we must act in unison, the report states: “Effective mitigation will not be achieved if individual agents advance their own interests independently. Cooperative responses, including international cooperation, are therefore required to effectively mitigate GHG emissions and address other climate change issues.”
10. This dire report is decidedly conservative. The effects of climate change could be much worse than what this report presents. As Chris Mooney explains, many scientific experts say the panel errs on the side of caution. He writes:

… a new study just out in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society… charge[s] that the IPCC is focused on avoiding what are called “type 1″ errors — claiming something is happening when it really is not (a “false positive”) — rather than on avoiding “type 2″ errors— not claiming something is happening when it really is (a “false negative”).

So the actual effects of climate change could be even more severe, and even stranger, than what the IPCC describes.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

November 4, 2014, 5:00 am

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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Analytical Chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with determining the qualitative and quantitative composition of substances. It is a branch which is broad in scope and its applications extend to all parts of an industrialized society.

The two main sub-branches of Analytical Chemistry are:

•  Qualitative analysis: The determination of the identity of chemical species present in a sample

      and

• Quantitative analysis: An examination to determine how much of a particular species is present in a sample.

The procedure followed while doing  a chemical analysis can be classified as either a classical (“wet”) procedure or an instrumentalprocedure. Therefore, both qualitative and quantitative analysis are sub-divided into classical (“wet”) analysis and instrumental analysis.  

In wet procedures chemical reactions are used to perform the analysis and there is no use of any mechanical or electronic instrument except of an analytical balance. Main sub-branches of classical ("wet") analysis are: 

 i) Gravimetric analysis, or quantitative estimation by weight, is the process of isolating and weighting an element or a compound of the element in as pure form as possible. The main object in gravimetric analysis is the transformation of the element or radical into a stable, pure compound which can be readily converted into a form suitable for weighting. The weight of the element is calculated from the formula of the compound and atomic weights of the elements that are constituents of the compound. The separation of the element or its compound may be accomplished by precipitation methods, volatilization or electroanalytical methods. 

 ii) Volumetric (titrimetric) analysis,is the analysis in which we measure the volume of a reagent reacting stoichiometrically with the analyte. It first appeared as an analytical method in the early eighteenth century and initially did not receive wide acceptance. The growth and acceptance of volumetric methods required  a deeper understanding of stoichiometry, thermodynamics and chemical equilibria. By the early 20^th century the accuracy and precision of volumetric methods were comparable to that of gravimetric methods, establishing an accepted analytical technique. Titrimetric methods are classified into four categories based on the type of reaction involved: Acid-base, complexometric, redox and precipitation titrations.
                                                                                                                                                 

In instrumental procedures there is use of instruments of some sort either to make a critical measurement or to perform the entire analysis. Modern day analytical chemistry is performed with the aid of instruments such as: NMR Spectrometer, Mass Spectrometer, I.R., FT-I.R, Gas Chromatograph or Liquid Chromatograph, ICP, Craphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, XRF, Cyclic Voltametry.

Fig. 1: Analytical Chemistry and main sub-branches

Optical methodsof analysis are also called spectroscopic methods. The first instruments were developed for use in the visible region and therefore the methods were called optical methods. All spectroscopic methods are based on the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with the quantized energy states of the matter. By these methods, we study the measurement of a quantity based on emission, absorption, scattering or change in some property of electromagnetic radiation depending on the nature or the amount of the constituent on the sample. These methods are classified based on either the type of effect (emission, absorption or scattering) or the type of the electromagnetic radiation (IR, visible, x-ray). The most important spectroscopic methods are given below:

Atomic Absorption  Spectroscopy – Flame Photometry – Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy

Emission Specroscopy

Raman Spectroscopy

Microwave Spectroscopy

U.V. Absorption Spectrophotometry

Infrared Spectrophotometry (I.R.)

Fluorophotometry - Phosphorimetry

Turbidimetry – Nephelometry

Refractometry - Interferometry

Raman Spectroscopy

X-ray: Absorption, Emission, Diffraction

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy – Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy

Gamma-ray Spectroscopy – Mossbauer Spectroscopy

References

1     D. Harvey,  “Modern Analytical Chemistry”, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 2000

2     R.D. Brown, “Introduction to Chemical Analysis”, McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,

1982

3     S.M. Khopkar, “Basic Concepts of Analytical Chemistry” , New Age Int. Ltd. Publishers, 2^nd,  1998

Calibration What is Calibration?

November 4, 2014, 9:12 am

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Calibration

What is Calibration?

Calibration is the process where you confirm that your measurements are true. This is usually done by measuring a standard and ensuring that the error is less than the requirement amount.
Take calibration of a scale for example. A standard weight is known to be 5.000g. Your measurement is 5.05g This means your error is 0.05g. Depending on the accuracy required, this may mean pass or fail. A required tolerance of +/- 0.02g means the scale has failed calibration. A tolerance of +/- 0.10g means the scale has passed. The tolerance of measuring equipment is set by the manufacturer, but is also determined by your process requirements.
A real calibration will test the measuring equipment over a range of measurements – either the full range of the instrument or the range over which it will be used.

Re-calibrate.

Equipment degrades over time and must be re-calibrated periodically.
Imagine that you have a simple go/no-go gauge to determine the conformance of an item.
Over time the gauge will wear, and will perhaps show more components as ‘good’. It might appear that production is improving, when in fact, the gauge is simply out of calibration. (The reverse is also possible, depending on the gauge.)

(image details ¹)

How often?

The interval between re-calibration is determined by a number of factors:

• manufacturer recommendations
• operating environment
• accuracy requirements
• how long the instrument historically stays ‘true’

What needs calibration?

Not all companies need to calibrate and for those that do, not everything will require calibration.
Obviously, if you don’t use measurement and test equipment (e.g. a labour hire company) then you won’t need to calibrate. These companies can claim an exception to this part of the standard if they are seeking certification to ISO 9001.
To determine which equipment must be calibrated, there are a number of things to consider:

• Is it required by the customer? e.g. In Australia, the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) requires calibration of all equipment used to determine whether a component satisfies requirements for return to service.

• Is it required by the product specifications? e.g., If measurements must be within tolerances, then you will need to calibrate your equipment to be sure that your measurements are true.

• What are the consequences of the measurements being wrong? e.g., accepting bad components, processing returns, rework, rejecting good components, increasing the difficulty of further processes, unhappy customers, etc. These costs can far exceed the costs of calibration.

• What is the cost of calibration and repair compared to the cost of replacing the item? (Note that you will still need to control this equipment and have a way to determine when it is no longer serviceable.)

Where calibration is not required, it is usually good practice to mark the equipment as such.

Keeping records

When you do calibrate, it is important to check the certificate for the results. The receipt of a certificate does not necessarily mean the equipment is good. Some certificates clearly state a pass or fail result. However, others rely on you to decide the result, which depends on the accuracy you actually need. Our lead consultant, Ian Clark, recommends that each certificate be signed to verify that it has been checked prior to storage of the certificate.
In some cases the storage method consists of shoving the certificate into a filing cabinet, never to be looked at again. However, having the calibration history more accessible can be valuable. This information helps you select the optimum calibration frequency, detect ongoing problems, and will reveal when equipment is reaching the end of it’s lifetime. This can be recorded on a paper ‘log’, spreadsheet or database.
In QSToolbox, measurement and test equipment is stored under the Assets section. Calibrations can be scheduled at the required frequency and appear on a central calendar. When maintenance or calibration work is performed, a record is added to the asset. Certificates and other documentation of the work can be uploaded and stored with the record. The history of the instrument is then easily accessible, and individual certificates can easily be retrieved. Here’s more on managing calibration using QSToolbox.

What happens when it fails?

When your equipment fails calibration it is a non-conformance. All the measurements since the last calibration are now suspect. The effects will depend on how critical the measurement is, how badly out of tolerance the equipment is, and how long since the last calibration. It may require corrective action such as re-measurement, rework, product recall.
In QSToolbox, this would be documented in the issue tracker as a non-conformance issue, and the corrective actions recorded as responses.

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Non-conformance

November 4, 2014, 9:20 am

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Non-conformance

A non-conformance means that something went wrong – a problem has occurred and needs to be addressed. Non-conformances are addressed with corrective actions.
You may find a non-conformance in a service, a product, a process, from a supplier, or in the system itself. It occurs when something does not meet the specifications or requirements in some way. Those requirements might be defined by the customer, a regulatory body, or in the internal procedures of the company.
A non-conformance could be identified through customer complaints, internal audits, external audits, incoming material inspection or simply during normal testing and inspection activities.

ISO 9001 requires that you document your non-conformance procedure (clause 8.3) and keep records of non-conformance issues you identify and the actions taken.

Your non-conformance procedure will address how you deal with the problem:

• how to decide on what immediate actions will be taken to correct the problem, and who is responsible for the decision. These immediate actions can be seen as “damage control” and need to:
  • stop further non-conformance
  • assess the effects of the problem – how much, how bad (e.g. scrap / rework),
  • contain the effects – e.g. quarantine defective items
  • notify affected customers, if necessary
• how reworked items should be checked (if different from normal inspection)
• how and where a non-conformance should be recorded
• what steps should be taken to identify any defective product released to a customer
• what, if any, concessions/discounts will be given to the customer
• how a decision will be made on whether further corrective action is necessary

Managing Issues

November 4, 2014, 9:21 am

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Managing Issues

Use the issue tracker to manage non-conformance issues, corrective actions, preventive actions, safety and other types of issues.
The Issue tracker comes with a set of pre-defined issue types:

• Audit Finding
• Customer Quality Issue or Complaint
• Design / Specification Issue
• Document Change
• Environmental Issue
• Improvement Request
• Maintenance Issue
• Product / Process Non-conformance
• Safety Issue
• Software Issue
• Supplier Quality Issue

When a non-conformance or other issue is identified, it is added to Quality systems Toolbox and described with the aid of images and/or files as necessary. Links to other content within Quality Systems Toolbox may also be included.
As the issue is processed, corrective actions are recorded as responses.

Reporting

Issues can be assigned to different categories for later reporting. For example, a supplier issue might be assigned to ‘late delivery’ or ‘incorrect parts supplied’. You can change the lists of categories for each type of issue to fit your specific requirements. Issues can also be organised into ‘folders’ or ‘tagged’ to group them in other ways for later reporting. For example, you may want to report on issues associated with a particular product, project, or location. There are many different Issue Tracker reports available from the ‘reports’ tab in the green toolbar.

Workflow

As the issue is dealt with, ‘responses’ are added to the issue to track the activity and form an audit trail of the corrective actions taken. From the front of the issue tracker, it is easy to see how many responses have been made for each issue.

Responses are assigned to different categories to describe the progress of the issue. As responses are added, the workflow state of the issue changes from ‘open and assigned’ through ‘in-progress’, and finally to ‘verified and closed’. The progress of the issue is shown visually, and the number of responses in each category.

Any logged in user may add a response, but only an action officer can change the workflow state of the issue.

Notifications

The issue is assigned to one or more ‘action officers’, who are responsible for resolving the issue. The action officer(s) and the user who added the issue will automatically be ‘subscribed’ to the issue and will receive email notifications when the issue is created and when responses are added. Any user may subscribe to the issue to stay informed of developments.

Search

Use the search options at the front of the Issue Tracker to quickly find the issue(s) you’re looking for. You can filter the list of issues by issue type, date, folder, workflow state, and action officer to get a short list of the issues you need. There are quick links to ‘my issues’, new issues, and issues you are subscribed to.

You can also search for specific text within the issue tracker to find the issue you are looking for, or use the global search at the top right of the site to search through all content in your site that matches the text you enter.
The user guide has more information on using search functions in QSToolbox, including how to perform wildcard searches for partial matches.

Links between Issues and other modules

Issues can link to any other content in Quality Systems Toolbox within the text describing the issue. There are also specific links to other content types for some of the issue types.
Assets: Maintenance Issues link to the asset stored in the Assets module. Assets with open issues will be flagged in the Assets register at the front of the assets module.*
Contacts: Customer complaints and Supplier issues in the Tracker link back to the relevant contact. If you view the contact, it’s easy to see what issues have been raised against them, and the status of those issues. Contacts with open issues will have a red flag next to their name in the front table of the Contacts module.
Documents: Document change requests link back to the document. Documents with an open Change Request Issue will be flagged in the front Documents table, and when you view the document itself, any open issues will be listed.

INVITATION

November 5, 2014, 7:23 am

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Samir Sinha                                                                              Room No. 309, National Media

                                                     Centre, 7-E, Raisina Road

Dy. Director (Media)                                                             Press Information Bureau

Ministry of Water Resources                                                New Delhi-110001                     

Tel. 23488098 (O)

       25253423 (R)  

E-mail: resources.water@gmail.com                                               

                                         November 5,  2014 

INVITATION

Dear Sir/Madam,

                You are cordially invited to cover the following event:

Event	Union Minister for  Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation Sushri Uma Bharti to inuagrate the National Convention of Water Users Associations
Date	November 07, 2014
Time	0930 hrs
Venue	Auditorium, Central Soil  Material Research Station, Olof Palme Marg Outer Ring Road, Near IIT Hostel, New Delhi-110 016

Yours sincerely, 

                      (Samir Sinha)

To

All Accredited Journalists

Government reconstitutes the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change

November 5, 2014, 7:27 am

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Government reconstitutes the Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change

The Government has decided to re-constitute the Prime Minister`s Council on Climate Changeto coordinate National Action for Assessment, Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change.

The composition of the reconstituted Prime Minister`s Council on Climate Change, as approved by Prime Minister, is as follows:

Prime Minister	Chairperson
Minister for External Affairs	Member
Finance Minister	Member
Minister for Environment, Forests and Climate Change	Member
Minister for Water Resources, River  Development and Ganga Rejuvenation	Member
Minister for Agriculture	Member
Minister for Urban Development	Member
Minister for Science and Technology	Member
MoS (Power, Coal and NRE)	Member
Cabinet Secretary	Member
Foreign Secretary	Member
Secretary, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change	Member
Dr. R. K. Pachauri, Chairperson, TERI	Member
Dr. Nitin Desai	Member
Shri ChandrasekarDasgupta	Member
Shri Ajay Mathur, Chairperson, BEE	Member
Shri J.M. Mauskar	Member
Principal Secretary to PM	Member convenor

            The Committee would focus on the following tasks:

·         Evolve a coordinated response to issues relating to climate change at the national level;

·         Provide oversight for formulation of action plans in the area of assessment, adaptation and mitigation of climate change;

·         Periodically monitor key policy decisions.

The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change will assist PMO in facilitating the work of this Committee.

Records required by ISO 9001

November 5, 2014, 7:44 am

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Records required by ISO 9001

ISO 9001 requires records to be kept on certain activities.
This is part of proving that you ‘do what you say’. These records are also important for making fact-based decisions on issues in your company.
Here are the activities for which records must be kept:

• Management Review Meetings – minutes (5.6.1)
• Training records (6.2.2)
• Product realization – evidence that requirements are fulfilled (7.1)
• Sales activities where the customer requirements are reviewed, including enquiry & quotation, order receipt, order processing, order changes.(7.2.2)
• Design and development – inputs, reviews, verification, validation, changes (7.3)
• Supplier Evaluations (7.4.1)
• re-validation of Special Processes (7.5.2) (processes where parameters are controlled e.g. temperature, rather than controlling the product)
• Unique product ID records – (e.g. serial / batch number) if traceability is required (7.5.3)
• Customer property – lost, damages or unsuitable for use (7.5.4)
• Calibrations (7.6)
• Internal Audits – findings and actions (8.2.2)
• Product checks – throughout process and for final release, including ‘who’ (8.2.4)
• Non-conformances (8.3)
• Corrective actions (8.5.2)
• Preventive actions (8.5.3)

 

Problem solving with the '5 Why 1 How' technique

November 5, 2014, 7:46 am

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Problem solving with the '5 Why 1 How' technique

(5) Why – (1) How …. is a simple tool which addresses single-problem issues rather than complex broad organisational issues. It attempts to analyse a problem or issue by asking a series of “Why (did this happen)?” questions followed up by an attempt at addressing the Root Cause of the issue by asking (1) How (do we fix this problem once & for all?").
The technique was originally developed by the Toyota Motor Corporation and is an important technique for problem solving.
The architect of the Toyota Production System, Taiichi Ohno, described the 5 whys method as “… the basis of Toyota’s scientific approach … by repeating why five times, the nature of the problem as well as its solution becomes clear.”

Example:
(1st Why) Why is there oil on the floor under the press?
A quick look found that the main return hose was leaking.
(2nd Why) Why is oil leaking from this hose?
After further investigation it was found that the hose is rubbing on a fan belt and had worn through.
(3rd Why) Why is it rubbing on the fan belt?
More investigation found that the fan belt housing was loose.
(4th Why) Why is the fan belt housing so loose?
After another check we found some of the bolts that hold the housing in place are not fully tensioned.
(5th Why) Why then are these bolts loose?
Nobody had serviced the press for over six months. (This is clearly the ROOTCAUSE of the problem.)

(1) How – How do we fix the problem?

Typically, this answer is a mixture of Immediate Corrective Actions:
Replace the hose and fan belt
Remove broken bolts on fan belt housing and replace with new ones
Torque all bolts to proper specifications, and
Preventive Action(s)
Check bolt torque regularly
Introduce a documented, preventive maintenance programme
Monitor the maintenance programme for effectiveness
Our example in this instance included (5) whys. The number of why’s is much less important than finding and fixing the root cause of the problem at hand.

Internal Audits

November 5, 2014, 7:48 am

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Internal Audits

An audit is simply another form of inspection and testing – except that in this case the product being inspected is the management system itself.
Like a product inspection, an audit simply compares how things actually are, to how we think they are and how they ought to be.
Audits help uncover areas that are in need of attention and they can be an opportunity to draw back from the day-to-day details and to take look at the whole process with fresh eyes. Despite being such a (potentially) positive tool in the management system toolkit, audits often induce the same kind of stress as end of year exams!
Obviously a great deal rides on a successful external audit so some anxiety is expected. However, a good Internal Audit process can reduce the stress, since you can uncover the problems yourself and resolve them before the external auditor begins.
We suggest you enrol in a professional development course before jumping into the role of Auditor. An alternative is to use an external consultant to perform your internal audits for you.
Quality, safety and environmental management standards all require audits to monitor and report on the effectiveness of the management system. This process is also one of the six documented procedures required by ISO 9001:2008.

A documented procedure shall be established to define the responsibilities and requirements for planning and conducting audits, establishing records and reporting results.

You are also required to keep records.

What does an internal audit process look like?

Each company will have their own particular method, but it will generally follow the same process.

Plan your Audit Programme

Internal Audits need to be scheduled at planned intervals to check that the quality system conforms to requirements and that the system is effective. ‘Requirements’ include the standard itself, as well as the company’s own requirements (i.e., it’s own procedures and policies).
You don’t need to audit every process all at one time. The External Audit may be like this, but internal audits can be spread out with different processes audited at different times – a series of ‘mini-audits’.
The standard does not set out a required audit frequency. Instead, it recommends that you consider how important the processes are, their risks, their prior history of problems, and also your quality objectives. With a series of ‘mini-audits’ you can set different audit frequencies for different processes.
If you are implementing a new management system, we recommend that you should have audited all the processes identified in your management system at least once prior to the initial Certification Audit.

Work out who will audit.

An auditor should be objective and impartial. You cannot audit processes that you manage / control yourself. This means you will need to have at least two internal auditors trained and available. However, due to lack of resources, or sometimes with the crossover of responsibilities that is common in small businesses, having two impartial auditors may not be possible. In this case, you may need to consider using an external resource.
Large organisations may use a team of auditors.

Define the requirements for each audit.

The plan already identifies the area you will audit, now you need to define what criteria you will audit against. Sometimes this takes the form of a formal checklist with a pre-determined list of questions. You can also use a copy of the procedure being audited and mark this up with questions and points to verify. You’ll need to identify what records should be checked to verify the process.
Any previous findings or issues related to the audit area should also be checked.
Even with pre-defined questions, an auditor will still need to ‘follow their nose’ if something is not quite right.
You can define the criteria for the audit prior to each audit rather than having to set this up at the planning stage.
These requirements (checklists, documents, records, etc) should be communicated to the auditee some time prior to the actual audit taking place. (Specify the time in your audit procedure – a week is reasonable)

Conduct the audit

An audit usually starts with an opening meeting where the auditor meets the auditee(s), sets the expected timetable and out how the audit will be conducted.
During the audit, the auditor will work systematically through the checklist or procedure, examining evidence that the process meets the criteria. It’s common to markup the checklist with notes and a quick finding result, e.g.,
C = compliant,
NI – needs improvement,
NC – non-conformance,

When recording the audit, it is important to write down exactly what evidence was examined to establish the finding – regardless of the finding. e.g. auditing employee training records the auditor writes:

(Note that the date is an important part of the evidence).
Usually the auditor will discuss the finding with the auditee before recording it. This is to ensure the finding is understood and to confirm there is actually a problem, e.g. the auditee above may reveal that Joe Bloggs’ personnel folder includes a separate safety briefing record with the required signature. This can sometimes negate the finding, or just change it – i.e. the signature is there, but it is not following the procedure. In this example, the consequences of not following the procedure are minor and the audit finding should reflect that.
The audit will finish with a closing meeting where the lead auditor gives an overall summary of the audit and discusses each audit finding to ensure they are understood.

Document the Audit findings

An external certification auditor will submit a formal written report on the audit to management several days later and it’s common for an internal auditor to do the same. However, there’s no requirement in the standard for a formal audit report. You simply need to ensure the findings are recorded and communicated to management. You could just record the findings and their details in your non-conformance form & register (or as an ‘Issue’ in QSToolbox).
You will need to retain records of the audit which will typically include:

• Completed Audit Checklists and/or marked up procedures
• Notes on objective evidence examined, and personnel interviewed
• Audit Findings (cross referenced to your Nonconformance Register)
• Audit Report

Take Action on those findings!

Findings raised at both Internal and External Audits need to be addressed with corrective actions. If the audit reveals that we don’t do as we say, then we either change what we do, or change what we say…
At the next audit, the auditor will verify that the corrective actions taken were effective in bringing the management system into compliance.

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Oxygen Scavenger

November 6, 2014, 7:01 pm

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Oxygen Scavenger

The Oxygen Scavenger is used for removing oxygen from boiler feed water straight away. This catalyzed scavenger converts itself to sodium bisulfate and remove oxygen instantly from boiler feed water. It is also responsible for buffering pH and reducing alkalinity of the feed water. Having precise pH value, this chemical is acknowledged for its attributes like saving power energy, minimize oxidation corrosion, removes oxygen and precise pH value. This formulation range is idyllically utilized in food & beverage, dairies, pharmaceutical, poultry and sugar industries.

Boiler Oxygen Scavenger

Chemtex’s Boiler Oxygen Scavenger is a catalyzed oxygen scavenger in liquid form based on catalyzed sodium bisulfite. It helps to instantly remove oxygen from the boiler feed water by converting itself to sodium bisulfate and also reduces alkalinity.

Key Features and Benefits

• Catalyzed Oxygen Scavenger for instant oxygen removal
• Minimizer or eliminates oxidation corrosion (corrosion due to presence of oxygen)
• Concentrated powder product
• Buffers pH
• Imparts power saving

Application and Dosage
Chemtex’s Boiler Oxygen Scavenger should be dissolved with water in a separate tank with slow agitation and dosed continuously to the boiler feed water line after the deaerator. For every 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen, 24ppm of Chemtex’s Boiler Oxygen Scavenger should be ideally dosed. However, the dosage varies with feed water temperature, for exact dosage refers the below table:-

Feed Water Temperature	CHEMTEX’S BOILER OXYGEN SCAVENGER (gms/ton of steam)
More than 80oC	45
60oC to 80oC	90
40oC to 60oc	180
Less than 40oC	300

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
Chemtex’s Boiler Oxygen Scavenger is available in 35kgs, 50 kgs HDPE jars and 220kgs barrels.

Catalyzed Sodium Sulfite

CHEMTEX’S CATALYZED SODIUM SULFITE is an oxygen scavenger in powder form, based on catalyzed sodium sulfite. It helps to instantly remove oxygen from the boiler feed water by converting itself to sodium sulfate.

Key Features and Benefits

• Catalyzed Oxygen Scavenger for instant oxygen removal
• Minimize or eliminates oxidation corrosion (corrosion due to presence of oxygen)
• Concentrated powder product
• Buffers pH
• Imparts power saving

Application and Dosage
CHEMTEX’S CATALYZED SODIUM SULFITE should be dissolved with water in a separate tank with slow agitation and dosed continuously to the boiler feed water line after the deaerator.

For every 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen, 8-10ppm of Catalysed Sodium Sulphite should be ideally dosed. However, the dosage varies with feed water temperature, for exact dosage refers the below table:-

Feed Water Temperature	S100 (gms/ton of steam)
More than 80oC	15
60oC to 80oC	30
40oC to 60oc	60
Less than 40oC	100

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
CHEMTEX’S CATALYZED SODIUM SULFITE is available in 50kgs air-tight open mouth HDPE jars.

Hydrazine Hydrate

Hydrazine hydrate and its derivatives play a significant role in various applications that contribute to ensure comfort, safety and healthcare in our everyday life.

Here we discuss the use of Hydrazine Hydrate as Oxygen Scavenger in Boiler water treatment.

Hydrazine Hydrate is a clear colorless liquid. It generally comprises of a 80% assay product, that is used for removing dissolved oxygen in boiler treatment.

Key Features and Benefits

• Removes dissolved oxygen
• Prevents oxidation corrosion
• Causes mild steel passivation
• Does not add to TDS of boiler water
• Completely volatile

Application and Dosage
Hydrazine Hydrate is dosed in the aerator of the boiler at the recommended dosage that is prescribed after analysis of dissolved oxygen in the water and other system parameters.

Please refer your CSL representative to recommend exact dosage.

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
This product is available in 200kgs HDPE drums and 50kgs jars.

Hydrazine Hydrate with Catalyst

Chemtex’s Hydrazine Hydrate With Catalyst is a very effective oxygen scavanger based on a volatile liquid formulation of hydrazine and catalyst. It is used to remove the even the last traces of dissolved oxygen from the boiler feed water by the following equation:-

O₂+ N₂H₄ 2H₂O + N₂Oxygen + Hydrazine Water + Nitrogen Gas

The catalyst in the product helps to increase the rate of the above reaction and ensures complete removal of dissolved oxygen in boiler feed water in lesser time.

Chemtex’s Hydrazine Hydrate With Catalyst also prevents corrosion by forming a protective passive film on metal and by boosting the pH in condensate line.

Key Features and Benefits

• Catalyzed Oxygen Scavenger for instant oxygen removal
• Does not add to the TDS of boiler water, since the product is volatile
• Minimizes oxidation corrosion (corrosion due to presence of oxygen)
• Catalyst in the product reduces the requirement of hydrazine for oxygen removal
• Prevents corrosion by forming a passive protective film over the metal surface
• Increases the condensate pH and minimizes corrosion of steam lines

Application and Dosage
Chemtex’s Hydrazine Hydrate With Catalyst is dosed at the rate of 5ppm for every ppm of dissolved oxygen from boiler feed water. It is recommended to maintain an excess dosage of 1.1 to 1.2 times the desired dosage as reserve for compensating the variation in oxygen content.

Please refer to your CSL service engineer for exact product dosage and dosing practice.

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
Chemtex’s Hydrazine Hydrate With Catalyst is available in 35kgs HDPE jars and 200kgs barrels.

Powder Antiscalant and Oxygen Scavenger

Chemtex’s Powder Antiscalant and Oxygen Scavenger is a blend of powder antiscalant and catalyzed oxygen scavenger, designed for boiler water treatment used in coil type boilers. The antiscalant inhibits deposition of calcium and iron scales on coils.

Key Features and Benefits

• Catalyzed Oxygen Scavenger for instant oxygen removal
• Minimizer or eliminates oxidation corrosion (corrosion due to presence of oxygen)
• Concentrated powder product
• Prevents scaling and thus overheating of coil
• Imparts power saving

Application and Dosage
CHEMTEX’S POWDER ANTISCALANT AND OXYGEN SCAVENGER is dosed at the rate of 15 to 100gms per ton of steam generation, depending upon the feed water temperature and type of boiler system.

Please refer to your CSL service engineer for exact product dosage.

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
Chemtex’s Powder Antiscalant and Oxygen Scavenger is available in 25kgs air-tight open mouth HDPE jars.

DEHA

Chemtex’s Deha is a volatile catalyzed oxygen scavenger cum condensate line treatment chemical. It is based on DEHA catalyzed with hydroquinones.

Chemtex’s Deha reacts with oxygen to form acetates, nitrogen and water. It passivates the metal surfaces in the boiler, and then passes out of the boiler with the steam, and act as a metal passivating agent in the return line system.

Key Features and Benefits

• Completely organic compound
• Volatile - Does not add TDS to blow down water
• Metal passivator and rust converter
• Effective condensate line treatment and pH booster
• Non-toxic and more safe than hydrazine and carbohydrazide based chemicals
• Compatible with other treatment chemicals
• Returns to the feed line with the condensate return so passivates total system
• High rate of reaction with oxygen compared with other oxygen scavengers
• It offers a vapor-liquid distribution ratio of 1.3 and thus distributes all along the condensate circuit, ensuring a total control of corrosion
• Single treatment for total corrosion control in boiler

Application and Dosage
Chemtex’s Deha is fed neat (undiluted) continuously to the boiler feed water depending upon the dissolved oxygen content, temperature and pressure of boiler. Theoretically the dosage is 1.3 parts active ingredient for every part of oxygen, but in application, a dosage of 3ppm active for every ppm of O2 is recommended.

Handling measures and precautions
Proper human safety products such as Splash goggles, lab coat, vapor respirator, gloves and boots should be worn while handling and applying chemicals. Splashes on skin should be washed off with water immediately. In case of splashing into the eyes, flush it with fresh water and obtain medical attention. Should not be injected. Please refer MSDS for more details.

Storage
This product should be stored in original containers in cool and dry place, away from sources of heat, flame and direct sunlight. Please refer Technical Data Sheet, Label and MSDS for more details and shelf life.

Packing
CHEMTEX’S DEHA is available in the following pack size of 35/200kgs HDPE jars and barrels.

Training, Awareness, and Competence

November 8, 2014, 1:39 am

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Training, Awareness, and Competence

In general, the standard states that “Personnel……shall be competent…”, which is a bit of a ‘no-brainer’ isn’t it?
It also includes a note to say this includes tasks that indirectly affect whether the product meets requirements, such as any involved in the quality management system. This means that when you are determining needs, providing training, and keeping records, you need to include the requirements of the quality management system as well as the product or services you provide.
The specific requirements are to:

a) determine the necessary competence for personnel performing work affecting conformity to product requirements,
b) where applicable, provide training or take other actions to achieve the necessary competence,
c) evaluate the effectiveness of the actions taken,
d) ensure that its personnel are aware of the relevance and importance of their activities and how they contribute to the achievement of the quality objectives, and
e) maintain appropriate records of education, training, skills and experience.

Those first three look very familiar: a) plan, b) do, c) check
Not terribly difficult. Just work out what you need, see what you have, and then fill in the gaps. Check to see it is working, and keep records to show you do it. This misses d) which is about making sure people know how their activities fit into the whole scheme of the business and its quality management system
As far as ISO9001 is concerned, you don’t have to document the process – you just have to do it and keep records to show that you do. (But you can document it you want to and an overview of the process can be helpful.)

Work out what you need

It’s very common to think about this when you write a job advertisement. You can use this mindset when writing job descriptions and determining competency requirements. Start with the responsibilities of the role and then think about what skills are needed to fulfil them. You’ll need to add in requirements that wouldn’t normally be included in a job ad, like knowledge specific to your organisation that’s provided in on-the-job training or induction, e.g., “Awareness of our Quality Management System”.
If you’re starting from scratch, one approach is to ask everyone to describe their own duties, and what skills are needed – just make sure you tell them why, so they know you’re not trying to replace them! You can then pass those descriptions up and down a level on the organisation chart to get a different perspective on the expectations for that role.
Knowing what you are expected to do makes it easier to know when you are doing a good job, and that increases employee satisfaction.

See what you have

Education, training, certificates, licences, experience, skills, awareness,… you’ll want to have records for these.
This is obvious when you are bringing in a new hire and filling out a new personnel file, but you’ll need to have a way to track this for your existing employees whose knowledge increases over time with experience and training.
It is common to add these kind of records to a personnel file, but this doesn’t allow you to get an overview of the assets and gaps, and tracking expiry dates is nigh impossible. Adding these competencies to a list, spreadsheet or database will make life easier.

Fill in the Gaps

Gap Analysis is where you compare the ‘needs’ to the ‘haves’, and find the holes.
This is pretty straightforward when there’s not too many employees and not too many competencies, but it can get quite tricky as the numbers increase.
You can use a database (e.g., Quality Systems Toolbox), spreadsheets, or a simple table:

Water collector tasks	Jack	Jill
operating the well	x	x
manual handling	x
first aid		x

Here’s an example of a table “Responsibility Matrix, Training Needs Analysis” included in the Environmental Management System Tool from the Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities

Once you’ve identified the holes, make a plan for filling them. This doesn’t have to be lots of dollars spent on formal external training. Other methods are perfectly acceptable: internal training, classroom, on-the-job instruction, adhoc/informal, mentoring, … Whatever works for you. Just keep records, which is easy for formal training, but a bit harder to remember to do for informal methods.

Check to see it worked

Training does not necessarily equal learning.
Adult Education specialist, Hadiya Nuriddin at www.examiner.com, gives a great example:
“I have received over 20 hours of cooking instruction and it may shock you to learn that I am still not a great cook. How could this be? I showed up and completed all the assigned tasks. I nodded, smiled, and laughed on cue. And yet, whenever I cook a meal, a real chef somewhere dies inside.”
and has some good tips on ‘How to get more learning out of training’.
You will need to assess whether the training you provided, whether it was internal or external, has been effective in closing the gap you identified. In some cases this assessment be be provided in the form of a licence or certificate from the external training body.
For internal training you can use other methods:

• Direct supervision of work by a competent operator,
• Extra inspection of the employee’s work,
• A written test after the training,
• A practical test after the training,
• a combination of the above.

Particularly for external training, Hadiya Nuriddin suggests that "managers and employees should discuss the course and what was learned. This does not mean asking how the course went and accepting, “Fine,” as an answer. It means having a meaningful discussion about how the material contributes to the employee’s and the company’s success."

Awareness

This seems to be the fuzziest one, but it’s not really. Awareness is something that employees need to know and would usually be part of the initial job orientation/induction. For some activities it won’t be obvious how they affect the customer and on quality management, or affect safety or environmental impacts. Having an overview of your processes (e.g. a process map) and top level process documentation can help define where the activities fit.
Awareness of the quality/safety/environmental management system is usually is taken care of by in-house training that should include:

• the quality / safety / environmental policy,
• significant quality / safety / environmental aspects of their activities and related work instructions,
• objectives and targets,
• their quality / safety / environmental management system roles and responsibilities,
• safety / environmental emergency action plan,
• where/how to access information,
• how to report incidents,
• how changes can be requested (e.g. a document change request)
• how updates are posted,

Changes occur and people forget, so don’t restrict awareness training to induction.

Records

If you are managing training then you’ll have the following records:

• written job descriptions and their competencies,
• paper or electronic copies of licences, certificates, training records, etc, and also the listing you created.
• meeting notes with attendees listed (e.g., for a safety briefings),
• the gap analysis (table / list / matrix),
• training dates (a plan, a calendar), and
• training records once training has been completed.

(All managed according to your written records management procedure).

Rinse and Repeat

Roles and responsibilities change over time and employees develop new skills, so you will need to repeat the analysis periodically. Conducting regular Performance Reviews is one method.
Also, new needs can arise if the business decides it wants to offer new services, has changed the way things are done (e.g., changes to a process, new software systems), or there have been changes to regulatory or customer requirements. If not otherwise, these changes are likely to come up as part of Management Review.

Management Representative for ISO 9001 - Responsibilities

November 8, 2014, 3:00 am

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Management Representative for ISO 9001 - Responsibilities

Taking on the role of Management Rep? What's required? What is expected? Here's a list of responsibilities that you might see in the description for the role of Quality System "Management Representative"

ISO 9001 quality management standard requires you to designate a “Management Representative”. (At least in the current version – ISO9001:2008. There are some changes in the 2015 draft…)
The standard is pretty clear about who this should be – someone from management! (and not the receptionist or bookkeeper (!!) as we occasionally see.)
While often a part of the role, being the contact person for the auditor is not the primary function.
Management Representative is really a cross-functional role involving project management, administrative, and business development tasks.
The ISO 9001:2008 standard allocates three duties:

• ensure Quality Management System processes are “established, implemented and maintained”,
• report to “top management” on the QMS performance and where improvements are needed,
• ensure that everyone in the organisation is aware of customer requirements.

The Management Representative is the key co-ordinator for the development of the quality system and, once the system has been certified, assumes responsibility for on-going system maintenance and effectiveness of operation. Rather than developing the QMS themselves, the management representative acts as a project manager for the ISO 9001 certification ‘project’.
Ongoing duties include reporting on how well the QMS is working and where it is not. The kinds of information to be reported will include things listed under Management Review (e.g. audit findings, customer feedback, suppliers, data establishing process trends = ’KPI’s). The actual data collection and analysis may well be done by someone else, e.g. the process owner.
The third duty is about making sure that the focus of the organisation remains on the customer. This can mean training, induction for new hires, updating policies, sharing customer feedback, etc… Note that this does not mean the Management Rep must DO all these things – they just have to make sure that it is happening.
These three duties are likely to be on top of other responsibilities.
The draft of the 2015 version of the ISO 9001 standard completely removes any reference to a “Management Representative”. Instead, some duties are assigned directly to top management and others can be delegated (although Top Management is still held accountable).
There’s no change to the requirement to establish “authority and responsibility”. This is often acheived through responsibility statements within Job Descriptions.
What statements might you see in a job description for a Management Representative? Here are some examples.

• Ensure that company third party accreditations are obtained and maintained (ISO 9001, AS 4801, ISO 14001).

• Ensure all company policies, procedures, and work instructions are documented in a clear, simple and concise manner.

• Assist in the preparation of tenders by providing management system related documents.

• Train all company personnel in the documented company policies

• Identify relevant legislative requirements.

• Control and maintain the company audit and risk assessment schedule.

• Conduct safety, quality and environmental system compliance audits

• Ensure personnel have received appropriate training and are assessed as competent to perform tasks.

• Prepare and submit monthly management reports relating to company systems, compliance and incidents

• Maintain the company library of compliance resources including standards.

10 Best Home Remedies for Arthritis

November 10, 2014, 7:14 am

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10 Best Home Remedies for Arthritis

Nov 10, 2014

If you have been experiencing pain and swelling in your joints of fingers, wrists, arms or legs and if the pain gets severe in the morning, it might be a case of Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA). If you can also hear a cracking noise while moving any of your joint and have constant stiffness in it, you may be suffering from Osteoarthritis. When your own immune system becomes your enemy and attacks your body tissues, you get rheumatoid arthritis. Thus it is an auto immune disease. On the other hand, when the cartilage or the cushion between your bones and joints gets damaged and increases the friction between the bones, you get osteoarthritis. While there is no permanent cure for arthritis (except, of course, joint replacement surgeries), there are many herbal and home remedies to manage the symptoms of arthritis including pain and stiffness. Proper diet, lifestyle changes and these home remedies can save you from becoming immobile and lead a normal life.

Home Remedies for Arthritis

Green Gram Remedy for Arthritis

Green gram or green moong dal (pulse) is a very good remedy for arthritis due to its many beneficial components like vitamin A, B, C and E, iron, calcium, and potassium. It also helps in weight loss, which is one of the pre-requisites for curing arthritis, as it is a low fat food rich in protein and fibers. If you regularly take green gram moong dal, your can reduce bad cholesterol levels and improve the flexibility of your arteries and veins apart from regulating your blood pressure. So, it seems a good deal to have green gram to manage arthritis and to get added benefits for free!

You will need:

• Green gram- 3 tbsp
• Water- 250 ml
• Garlic cloves- 2
• Salt (optional)- a pinch
• Pepper (optional)- a pinch

Directions:

• Soak green gram in the water overnight.
• In the morning, take out the soaked green gram from the water.
• Crush the garlic.
• Add the garlic to green gram.
• Have a handful of this green gram-garlic mix twice a day.
• If you want to make it a little tasty, add salt and pepper to it.

You should have the green moong for at least 2-3 months daily.

Turmeric for Arthritis

Many researches have supported the belief that turmeric reduces pain and inflammation including tenderness and swelling of joints. There is also no side effects of having turmeric. You just need to add a dash of turmeric powder in your gravies and curries to get the benefits. In fact, if you are not allergic to having milk, you must boil a glass of milk with ¼ tsp of turmeric powder and have it before going to bed. If you don’t want to have milk, use water and boil some turmeric with it and have it. Remember, you need to boil turmeric with milk or water and not just add the spice to warm drinks!

Black cumin for Arthritis

Loaded with flavonoids and antioxidants, black cumin can be a perfect anti-inflammatory spice. The salicylic acid in it relieves you from pain too. Use it like below.

• Add 2 tsp of black cumin in a glass of water.
• Boil this mixture until it reduces to ¾ of its original quantity.
• Let it cool down,
• Drink this daily before going to bed and in the morning after waking up.

Fennel for Arthritis

The phytonutrients present in fennel makes it a super spice having antioxidant properties. Anethole, which is the primary component of fennel’s volatile oil, helps in reducing inflammation. Vitamin C in it neutralizes free radicals which in turn prevents pain as well as deterioration of joints seen in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Vitamin C also helps in proper functioning of the immune system. Including this spice in your dishes can give you more health benefits that you can imagine. Make fennel tea yourself and enjoy its good taste while eliminating pain and swelling that you get from arthritis.

• Take 1 tsp of fennel seeds and crush them in a mortar and pestle.
• Heat a cup of water (don’t boil it).
• Place the crushed fennel seeds in a cup and pour hot water over it.
• Cover and steep for 10 minutes.
• Have this aromatic tea. You don’t need any added sweetener as fennel seeds are naturally sweet (though only a little sweet).

You may have this tea twice or thrice a day.

Fenugreek Seeds for Arthritis

Fenugreek seeds which are high in fiber and protein have various other beneficial components including iron, vitamin A, vitamin B1, vitamin C, phosphates, flavonoids, saponins, trigonelline, and other alkaloids. Because of their anti-inflammatory properties these seeds have been traditionally used to get relief from pain due to arthritis and gout too. There are more than one way to have fenugreek seeds for arthritis.

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• Soak a teaspoon of fenugreek seeds in water overnight. In the morning, discard the water and chew the seeds. You will feel the bitterness first but gradually you’ll adapt to its taste.
• If you can’t stand the bitter taste of fenugreek seeds while chewing, swallow the seeds with water.
• You can also use fenugreek seeds powder. Mix one tsp of this powder to a cup lukewarm water and have this in the morning on an empty stomach everyday for about 2-3 months.
• You can also use fenugreek powder or seeds in your gravies and curries.

Ginger for Arthritis

Ginger root is one herb that can be called a superfood. Many ancient medicine systems including Chinese, Indian and Arabic herbal medicines have used ginger to not only treat arthritis pain but also for many other medical conditions like diarrhea, nausea, colic, and heart conditions. In one of the studies conducted with 261 people having osteoarthritis in knee, the patients were given ginger extract twice daily and they reported less pain as well as needed fewer pain-killing medications. So, you can, without worry, add ginger to your daily menu. Use it for gravies, teas or chew it raw with some salt. Ayurveda, in fact, recommends a mixture of certain spices with ginger to cure arthritis.

You will need:

• Ginger powder- 50 g
• Fenugreek seeds powder- 50 g
• Turmeric- 50 g

Directions:

• Mix all the three ingredients- fenugreek, turmeric and ginger powder.
• Store it in an airtight container.
• Every morning and evening, take one tsp of this mixture. You can mix it with warm water and have it.

Mustard Oil- Camphor Massage for Arthritis

Massaging aching and swollen joints with herbal oils is one of the ancient ways to manage arthritis. Here is a recipe for such oil.

You will need:

• Mustard oil- 1 cup
• Camphor- 10 g

Directions:

• Take mustard oil in a pan.
• Add camphor to this oil.
• Heat the oil till the camphor gets completely dissolved.
• Let it cool down a little till it gets lukewarm.
• Massage your joints gently with this lukewarm oil.

Sesame Seeds for Arthritis

Chinese traditional medicine recommends eating sesame seeds for arthritis relief. Sesame seeds are rich in fatty acids, calcium, magnesium, and copper that help in reducing inflammation and pain.

• Sprinkle a little sesame seeds powder on your choice of dishes and have it during lunch and dinner.
• Soak black sesame seeds in a cup of water overnight. Have this water along with the seeds in the morning.

Juice Remedy for Arthritis

If you have rheumatoid arthritis, you should try to have certain juices on daily basis. The juices that you have must be high in anti-inflammatory components like beta-carotene which is found in parsley, broccoli and spinach; copper which is found in carrots, apples and ginger; pineapple which is rich in the enzyme bromelain. If you have osteoarthritis, you should avoid citrus fruits and certain vegetable juices like those made with potatoes, tomatoes, peppers and eggplant. Here are some suggestion for juices that you may have.

• Carrot, celery, and cabbage Juice having a dash of Parsley.
• Potato juice (only for Rheumatoid Arthritis). Soak thin slices of potatoes with peel in a glass of water overnight. Have this water in the morning.
• Cherry juice.
• Carrot, beet, and cucumber juice
• Radish and garlic juice

Diet Remedy for Arthritis

Proper diet is of utmost importance when you talk about home remedies for arthritis because here you take some food that affects your joints and body inflammation in a negative way, there you’ll lose all the benefits from the herbs and spices you use for getting relief from arthritis. Thus, have a low-fat, low-cholesterol diet having complex carbohydrates from vegetables and grains. This kind of diet helps in reducing the fat in your tiny arteries that supply blood to your joints. This means your joints will get more oxygen, vitamins, minerals and other nutrients that you take through various herbs and foods for your arthritis. Here are some diet rules for you to follow.

1. To detox your body, first of all take 2 tea spoons of lemon juice mixed in a glass of warm water with 1 tea spoon of honey. Have it twice, in morning and evening.
2. Avoid foods that produce gas and lead to bloating. These include cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, broccoli, lady’s fingers and potatoes.
3. Have vegetable juices and soups that are made with antioxidants and anti-inflammatory ingredients. For example, juices of carrot, beat root and cucumber mixed together is good for you.
4. Have green salad with a simple dressing of lemon juice and a little salt.
5. Have fruits like apples, oranges, grapes, papaya etc.
6. Have vegetables like squash, zucchini, pumpkin.
7. Use such spices as cumin, coriander, ginger, asafetida, garlic, fennel and turmeric while cooking and also as seasoning for salads, yogurt etc.
8. Avoid hot and spicy as well as fried foods, and
9. Avoid excessive tea, coffee, alcohol, white sugar, yogurt, chocolate, cocoa, smoking.

Proper diet, certain exercises and herbs as well spices mentioned above can go a long way to give you relief from arthritis.

50 Powerful Photos Capture Extraordinary Moments In The Wild

November 10, 2014, 7:24 am

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50 Powerful Photos Capture Extraordinary Moments In The Wild

Oct 28, 2014Green Yatra BlogEnvironment0

A FROG SAILS THROUGH THE RAIN ON A HOMEMADE SAILBOAT.

AN ELEPHANT GUARDS THE BODY OF A FALLEN FRIEND FROM SCAVENGERS.

THE ELEGANT COCONUT OCTOPUS IS FOUND IN THE TROPICAL WATERS OF THE WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN.

TWO STALLIONS BATTLE FOR DOMINANCE.

A CLOWNFISH AND EEL MEET FOR THE FIRST TIME.

AN ELEGANT BLUE HALF-MOON BETTA FISH.

AN OWL AND A WOODPECKER ATTEMPT TO INTIMIDATE ONE ANOTHER.

A LEOPARD RETREATS TO THE TREES FOR A WELL-EARNED MEAL

THE BEAUTIFUL MULTI-COLORED CUCKOO WASP.

AN ANT DRINKS FROM A DROPLET OF WATER.

THE BREATHTAKING AFRICAN BUSH VIPER IS WELL KNOWN FOR ITS BEAUTIFULLY COLORED SCALES.

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AN ARCTIC FOX ENJOYS THE SNOWFALL.

IN AN AMAZING DISPLAY, FISH HITCH A RIDE ON THE BACK OF A WHALE SHARK.

THE VIBRANT WEEDY SEADRAGON CARRIES FERTILIZED EGGS.

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THE SARDINE RUN IN SOUTH AFRICA SEES BILLIONS OF FISH FORM INTO UNIMAGINABLY LARGE GROUPS AS THEY MIGRATE TO WARMER WATERS.

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GOAT KIDS PLAYING AT 14,000 FEET

TINY BABY OCTOPII EMERGE FROM THEIR STRANGE PODS.

THE DELICATE GLASSWINGED BUTTERFLY.