Along with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) process, the Education For All (EFA) movement, and the United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD), the DESD also aims to achieve an improvement in the quality of life, particularly for the most deprived and marginalised, fulfillment of human rights including gender equality, poverty reduction, democracy and active citizenship. If the MDGs provide a set of tangible and measurable development goals within which education is a significant input and indicator; if EFA focuses on ways of providing educational opportunities to everyone, and if the UNLD concentrates on promoting the key learning tool for all forms of structured learning, DESD is more concerned than the other three initiatives with the content and purpose of education. Conceiving and designing ESD challenges all forms of educational provision to adopt practices and approaches which foster the values of sustainable development
In response to the DESD, the United Nations University (UNU) called for the development of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) networks for the promotion of ESD, as well as being expertise centres for the research development of ESD. This was the birth of Regional Centres of Expertise (RCE) for the education of sustainable development.

World Soil Day

05 Dec 2013

For the International Union of Soil Scientists, World Soil Day"celebrates the importance of soil as a critical component of the natural system and as a vital contributor to the human commonwealth through its contribution to food, water and energy security and as a mitigator of biodiversity loss and climate change". To further raise awareness, the FAO's Global Soil Partnership has declared the year 2015 as UN International Year of Soils.

 Soil is a finite natural resource. On a human time-scale it is non-renewable. However, despite the essential role that soil plays for human livelihoods, worldwide there is increasing degradation of soil resources.  Recognizing the importance of soils, the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), in 2002, made a resolution proposing the 5^th of December as World Soil Day. This day is aimed to celebrate the importance of soil as a critical component of the natural system and as a vital contributor to the human wellbeing. 
Under the leadership of the kingdom of Thailand and within the framework of the "Global Soil Partnership", FAO has supported the formal establishment of a global awareness raising platform such as the World Soil Day. The FAO Conference in June 2013 unanimously endorsed World Soil Day and requested the 68^th UNGA to have it officially adopted. In this context, FAO has decided to organize this event on 5^th December 2013. 
 This event will take place on 5 December from 13:00 – 14:30 at the Sheik Zayed Centre in FAO, Rome, Italy.

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy was an industrial catastrophe that occurred in 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

At the time, UCIL was the Indian subsidiary of the US company Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), itself now a subsidiary of Dow Chemical Company.


 Around midnight on the intervening night of December 2-3, 1984, the plant released methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other toxins, resulting in the exposure of over 5,00,000 people. Estimates vary on the death toll. 







Other government agencies estimate 15,000 deaths. Others estimate that 8,000 died within the first weeks and that another 8,000 have since died from gas-related diseases. The official immediate death toll was 2,259 and the government of Madhya Pradesh has confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release.

 The gases flooded the city of Bhopal, causing great panic as people woke up with a burning sensation in their lungs.
 The leakage caused many short term health effects in the surrounding areas. Thousands died immediately from the effects of the gas and many were trampled in the panic.









http://indiatoday.intoday.in/gallery/bhopal-gas-tragedy-in-pics/1/3261.html#photo6

Toxicological Perspective

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The methyl isocyanate poisoning of Bhopal, India had many disastrous consequences. Hundreds of thousands of people were injured and around 15,000 died. The toxicological and environmental problems are ongoing. Due to a lack of political willpower, the toxic waste from the disaster has still not been cleaned up. Higher rates of Cancer and diseases affecting the central nervous system, liver, and kidneys were witnessed. Also, water analysis is poor due to continued contamination from benzene hexachloride and Mercury that persists to this day.

Background

---

The Union Carbide plant was established in Bhopal in 1969 and it began to produce the insecticide Carbaryl. methyl isocanyte is an ingredient of carbaryl, and on the morning of December 3, 1984, a holding tank containing 43 tons of methyl isocyanate overheated and released the toxic gas. Because methyl isocyanate isheavier than air, it traveled over the ground through the Bhopal city center. The transportation system collapsed, and many people were trampled to death in a mad rush to flee the visible gases. In total, 15,000 people died and 150,000-600,000 people were injured.
The contamination and deaths were a result of numerous factors:

• Recent documents obtained through discovery in the course of a lawsuit against Union Carbide for environmental contamination (before a New York Federal District Court) revealed that Carbide had exported "untested, unproven technology" to the Indian plant. Unlike Union Carbide plants in the USA, its Indian subsidiary plants were not prepared for problems. No action plans had been established to cope with incidents of this magnitude. This included not informing local authorities of the dangers of chemicals used and manufactured at Bhopal.

• Reports issued months before the incident by scientists within the Union Carbide corporation warned of the possibility of an accident almost identical to that which occurred in Bhopal. The reports were ignored outright and never made it to senior staff. Due to falling sales, staff had been laid off and safety checks became less and less frequent.

• Slip-blind plates that would have prevented water from pipes being cleaned from leaking into the MIC tanks via faulty valves were not installed. Their installation had been omitted from the cleaning checklist.

• At the time of the event, the MIC tank refrigeration unit was disabled to save money, and some of its coolant was being used elsewhere. A simple press of a button in the control room would have activated it to at least use the remaining coolant, but this was overlooked by staff.

• The gas scrubber was placed on standby, and therefore did not attempt to clean escaping gases with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which may have brought the concentration down to a safe level.

• The water curtain that may have reduced the concentration of the gas was only set to ~13 m and did not reach the gas; it was not designed to contain a leak of such magnitude. Though the audible external alarm was activated to warn the residents of Bhopal, it was quickly silenced to avoid causing panic among the residents. Thus, many continued to sleep, unaware of the unfolding drama, and those that had woken assumed any problem had been sorted out.

• The flare tower used to burn off gases before they are allowed to escape into the air was inoperational pending repairs.

• Doctors and hospitals were not informed of proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation. They were told to simply give cough medicine and eyedrops to their patients.

Union Carbide agreed to pay $470 million to the residents of Bhopal. That amount is lower than in the lawsuit and substantially lower than similar Asbestos cases Union Carbide was settling concurrently in the United States. By the end of October 2003, according to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Relief and Rehabilitation Department, compensation had been awarded to 554,895 people for injuries received and 15,310 survivors of those killed. The average amount to families of the dead was $2,200. Union Carbide also attempted to distance itself from the tragedy by blaming its subsidiary in India and even fabricated stories about a Sikh extremist group and disgruntled former employees bent on sabotaging the plant.

Health Effects Summary for MIC

---

Immediate Health Effects  (0-6 months)

• Ocular: Chemosis, redness, watering, ulcers, photophobia
• Respiratory: Distress, pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, pneumothorax
• Gastrointestinal: Persistent diarrhea, anorexia, persistent abdominal pain
• Genetic: Increased chromosomal abnormalities
• Psychological: Neuroses, anxiety states, adjustment reactions
• Neurobehavioral: Impaired audio and visual memory, impaired vigilance attention and response time, Impaired reasoning and spatial ability, impaired psychomotor coordination

Long-term Health Effects

• Ocular: Persistent watering, corneal opacities, chronic conjunctivitis
• Respiratory: Obstructive and restrictive airway disease, decreased lung function
• Reproductive: Increased pregnancy loss, increased infant mortality, decreased placental/fetal weight
• Genetic: Increased chromosomal abnormalities
• Neurobehavioral: Impaired associate learning, motor speed, and precision

Bhopal disaster

    The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (December 2012)
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Bhopal disaster Bhopal-Union Carbide 1 crop memorial.jpg
Bhopal memorial for those killed and disabled by the 1984 toxic gas release
Date     2 December 1984–3 December 1984
Location     Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Coordinates     23°16′51″N 77°24′38″ECoordinates: 23°16′51″N 77°24′38″E
Also known as     Bhopal gas tragedy
Cause     Gas leak from Union Carbide India Limited storage tank
Deaths     At least 3,787; over 16,000 claimed
Injuries     At least 558,125

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident in India, considered the world's worst industrial disaster.[1] It occurred on the night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl isocyanate gas and other chemicals. The toxic substance made its way in and around the shantytowns located near the plant.[2] Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. The government of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release.[3] Others estimate 8,000 died within two weeks and another 8,000 or more have since died from gas-related diseases.[4] [5] [6] A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.[7]

UCIL was the Indian subsidiary of Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), with Indian Government controlled banks and the Indian public holding a 49.1 percent stake. In 1994, the Supreme Court of India allowed UCC to sell its 50.9 percent interest in UCIL to Eveready Industries India Limited (EIIL), which subsequently merged with McLeod Russel (India) Ltd. Eveready Industries India, Limited, ended cleanup on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh. Dow Chemical Company purchased UCC in 2001, seventeen years after the disaster.

Civil and criminal cases are pending in the District Court of Bhopal, India, involving UCC and Warren Anderson, UCC CEO at the time of the disaster.[8][9] In June 2010, seven ex-employees, including the former UCIL chairman, were convicted in Bhopal of causing death by negligence and sentenced to two years imprisonment and a fine of about $2,000 each, the maximum punishment allowed by Indian law. An eighth former employee was also convicted, but died before the judgment was passed.[1]

Contents

    1 The pre-event phase
        1.1 Earlier leaks
        1.2 Contributing factors
        1.3 Work conditions
        1.4 Equipment and safety regulations
    2 The leakage and its immediate effects
        2.1 The release
            2.1.1 The gas cloud
            2.1.2 Release theories
        2.2 Acute effects
            2.2.1 Hydrogen cyanide debate
    3 Long term effects
        3.1 Long term health effects
        3.2 Health care
        3.3 Environmental rehabilitation
        3.4 Occupational and habitation rehabilitation
        3.5 Economic rehabilitation
    4 Union Carbide's defence
        4.1 Investigation into possible sabotage
        4.2 Safety and equipment issues
        4.3 Analysis
        4.4 Response
    5 Legal action against Union Carbide
        5.1 Legal proceedings leading to the settlement
        5.2 Charges against UCC and UCIL employees
    6 Ongoing contamination
    7 Activism
        7.1 Local activism
        7.2 International activism
        7.3 Activist organisations
        7.4 Settlement fund hoax
        7.5 Monitoring of Bhopal activists
    8 See also
    9 Citations
    10 References
    11 External links

The pre-event phase

The UCIL factory was built in 1969 to produce the pesticide Sevin (UCC's brand name for carbaryl) using methyl isocyanate (MIC) as an intermediate.[5] A MIC production plant was added in 1979.[10][11][12] After the Bhopal plant was built, other manufacturers including Bayer produced carbaryl without MIC, though at a greater manufacturing cost. However, Bayer also used the UCC process at the chemical plant once owned by UCC at Institute, West Virginia, USA.[13][14]

The chemical process employed in the Bhopal plant had methylamine reacting with phosgene to form MIC, which was then reacted with 1-naphthol to form the final product, carbaryl. This "route" differed from the MIC-free routes used elsewhere, in which the same raw materials were combined in a different manufacturing order, with phosgene first reacting with naphthol to form a chloroformate ester, which was then reacted with methylamine. In the early 1980s, the demand for pesticides had fallen, but production continued, leading to buildup of stores of unused MIC.[5][13]
Earlier leaks

In 1976, two trade unions complained of pollution within the plant.[5][15] In 1981, a worker was splashed with phosgene. In a panic, he removed his mask, inhaling a large amount of phosgene gas which resulted in his death 72 hours later.[5][15] UCC was warned by American experts who visited the plant after 1981 of the potential of a "runaway reaction" in the MIC storage tank. Local Indian authorities had warned the company of the problem as early as 1979, but constructive actions were not undertaken by UCIC at that time.[5][13] In January 1982, a phosgene leak exposed 24 workers, all of whom were admitted to a hospital. None of the workers had been ordered to wear protective masks. One month later, in February 1982, a MIC leak affected 18 workers.[5][15] In August 1982, a chemical engineer came into contact with liquid MIC, resulting in burns over 30 percent of his body.[5][15] Later that same year, in October 1982, there was another MIC leak. In attempting to stop the leak, the MIC supervisor suffered intensive chemical burns and two other workers were severely exposed to the gases.[5][15] During 1983 and 1984, there were leaks of MIC, chlorine, monomethylamine, phosgene, and carbon tetrachloride, sometimes in combination.[5][15]
Contributing factors

Factors leading to the magnitude of the gas leak mainly included problems such as; storing MIC in large tanks and filling beyond recommended levels, poor maintenance after the plant ceased MIC production at the end of 1984, failure of several safety systems due to poor maintenance, and safety systems being switched off to save money— including the MIC tank refrigeration system which could have mitigated the disaster severity. The situation was worsened by the mushrooming of slums in the vicinity of the plant, non-existent catastrophe plans, and shortcomings in health care and socio-economic rehabilitation.[4][5]

Other factors identified by the inquiry included: use of a more dangerous pesticide manufacturing method, large-scale MIC storage, plant location close to a densely populated area, undersized safety devices, and the dependence on manual operations.[5] Plant management deficiencies were also identified – lack of skilled operators, reduction of safety management, insufficient maintenance, and inadequate emergency action plans.[5][15]
Work conditions

Attempts to reduce expenses affected the factory's employees and their conditions. Kurzman argues that "cuts...meant less stringent quality control and thus looser safety rules. A pipe leaked? Don't replace it, employees said they were told ... MIC workers needed more training? They could do with less. Promotions were halted, seriously affecting employee morale and driving some of the most skilled ... elsewhere".[16] Workers were forced to use English manuals, even though only a few had a grasp of the language.[17][18]

By 1984, only six of the original twelve operators were still working with MIC and the number of supervisory personnel was also halved. No maintenance supervisor was placed on the night shift and instrument readings were taken every two hours, rather than the previous and required one-hour readings.[17][16] Workers made complaints about the cuts through their union but were ignored. One employee was fired after going on a 15-day hunger strike. 70% of the plant's employees were fined before the disaster for refusing to deviate from the proper safety regulations under pressure from the management.[17][16]

In addition, some observers, such as those writing in the Trade Environmental Database (TED) Case Studies as part of the Mandala Project from American University, have pointed to "serious communication problems and management gaps between Union Carbide and its Indian operation", characterised by "the parent companies [sic] hands-off approach to its overseas operation" and "cross-cultural barriers".[19]
Equipment and safety regulations

The MIC tank alarms had not been working for four years and there was only one manual back-up system, compared to a four-stage system used in the United States.[4][5][17][20] The flare tower and several vent gas scrubbers had been out of service for five months before the disaster. Only one gas scrubber was operating: it could not treat such a large amount of MIC with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which would have brought the concentration down to a safe level.[20] The flare tower could only handle a quarter of the gas that leaked in 1984, and moreover it was out of order at the time of the incident.[4][5][17][21] To reduce energy costs, the refrigeration system was idle. The MIC was kept at 20 degrees Celsius, not the 4.5 degrees advised by the manual.[4][5][17][20] Even the steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes, was inoperational for unknown reasons.[4][5][17][20] Slip-blind plates that would have prevented water from pipes being cleaned from leaking into the MIC tanks, had the valves been faulty, were not installed and their installation had been omitted from the cleaning checklist.[4][5][17] The water pressure was too weak to spray the escaping gases from the stack. They could not spray high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas.[4][5][17][20] In addition to it, carbon steel valves were used at the factory, even though they were known to corrode when exposed to acid.[13]

According to the operators, the MIC tank pressure gauge had been malfunctioning for roughly a week. Other tanks were used, rather than repairing the gauge. The build-up in temperature and pressure is believed to have affected the magnitude of the gas release.[4][5][17][20] UCC admitted in their own investigation report that most of the safety systems were not functioning on the night of 3 December 1984.[22] The design of the MIC plant, following government guidelines, was "Indianized" by UCIL engineers to maximise the use of indigenous materials and products. Mumbai-based Humphreys and Glasgow Consultants Pvt. Ltd., were the main consultants, Larsen & Toubro fabricated the MIC storage tanks, and Taylor of India Ltd. provided the instrumentation.[23] In 1998, during civil action suits in India, it emerged that the plant was not prepared for problems. No action plans had been established to cope with incidents of this magnitude. This included not informing local authorities of the quantities or dangers of chemicals used and manufactured at Bhopal.[4][5][13][17]
The leakage and its immediate effects
The release
Methylamine (1) reacts with phosgene (2) producing methyl isocyanate (3) which reacts with 1-naphthol (4) to yield carbaryl (5)

The 1985 reports give a picture of what led to the disaster and how it developed, although they differ in details.[24][22][25]

In November 1984, most of the safety systems were not functioning and many valves and lines were in poor condition. In addition to this, several vent gas scrubbers had been out of service as well as the steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes was nonoperational. Other issue was that, Tank 610 contained 42 tons of MIC which was much more than what safety rules allowed.[5] During the night of 2–3 December 1984, water entered Tank E610 containing 42 tons of MIC. A runaway reaction started, which was accelerated by contaminants, high temperatures and other factors. The reaction was sped up by the presence of iron from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines.[5] The resulting exothermic reaction increased the temperature inside the tank to over 200 °C (392 °F) and raised the pressure. This forced the emergency venting of pressure from the MIC holding tank, releasing a large volume of toxic gases. About 30 metric tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC) escaped from the tank into the atmosphere in 45 to 60 minutes.[2]
The gas cloud

The gases were blown in southeastern direction over Bhopal.[5][26]

As of 2008, UCC had not released information about the possible composition of the cloud. Apart from MIC, the gas cloud may have contained phosgene, hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, oxides of nitrogen, monomethyl amine (MMA) and carbon dioxide, either produced in the storage tank or in the atmosphere.[5] The gas cloud was composed mainly of materials denser than the surrounding air, stayed close to the ground and spread outwards through the surrounding community.[5]

The nature of the cloud is still discussed. The chemical reactions would have produced a liquid or solid aerosol with high density. The concentrations at ground level would have been much higher than earlier published.[27]
Release theories

Much speculation arose in the aftermath. The closing of the plant to outsiders (including UCC) by the Indian government and the failure to make data public contributed to the confusion. The initial investigation was conducted entirely by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Central Bureau of Investigation.

Theories differ as to how the water entered the tank. At the time, workers were cleaning out a clogged pipe with water about 400 feet from the tank. They claimed that they were not told to isolate the tank with a pipe slip-blind plate. The operators assumed that owing to bad maintenance and leaking valves, it was possible for the water to leak into the tank..[5][17]

However, this water entry route could not be reproduced.[28] UCC maintains that this route was not possible, but instead alleges water was introduced directly into the tank as an act of sabotage by a disgruntled worker via a connection to a missing pressure gauge on the top of the tank.

Early the next morning, a UCIL manager asked the instrument engineer to replace the gauge. UCIL's investigation team found no evidence of the necessary connection; however, the investigation was totally controlled by the government, denying UCC investigators access to the tank or interviews with the operators.[29][24]

UCC believed that a "disgruntled worker" deliberately connected a hose to a pressure gauge connection and was the real cause.[5][29]
Acute effects
Reversible reaction of glutathione (top) with methyl isocyanate (MIC, middle) allows the MIC to be transported into the body

The initial effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a feeling of suffocation. People awakened by these symptoms fled away from the plant. Those who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle to ride. Owing to their height, children and other people of shorter stature inhaled higher concentrations. Many people were trampled trying to escape.

Thousands of people had succumbed by the morning hours. There were mass funerals and mass cremations. Bodies were dumped into the Narmada River, less than 100 km from Bhopal. 170,000 people were treated at hospitals and temporary dispensaries. 2,000 buffalo, goats, and other animals were collected and buried. Within a few days, leaves on trees yellowed and fell off. Supplies, including food, became scarce owing to suppliers' safety fears. Fishing was prohibited causing further supply shortages.[5]

Within a few days, trees in the vicinity became barren, and 2,000 bloated animal carcasses had to be disposed of.[5] On 16 December, tanks 611 and 619 were emptied of the remaining MIC. This led to a second mass evacuation from Bhopal.[5] The Government of India passed the "Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster Act" that gave the government rights to represent all victims, whether or not in India.[5] Complaints of lack of information or misinformation were widespread. An Indian Government spokesman said, "Carbide is more interested in getting information from us than in helping our relief work."[5]

Formal statements were issued that air, water, vegetation and foodstuffs were safe within the city. At the same time, people were informed that poultry was unaffected, but were warned not to consume fish.[5] No one under the age of 18 was registered at the time of the accident. The number of children exposed to the gases was at least 200,000.[5]

The acute symptoms were burning in the respiratory tract and eyes, blepharospasm, breathlessness, stomach pains and vomiting. The causes of deaths were choking, reflexogenic circulatory collapse and pulmonary oedema. Findings during autopsies revealed changes not only in the lungs but also cerebral oedema, tubular necrosis of the kidneys, fatty degeneration of the liver and necrotising enteritis.[30] The stillbirth rate increased by up to 300% and neonatal mortality rate by around 200%.[5]
Hydrogen cyanide debate

Whether hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was present in the gas mixture is still a controversy.[30][31]

Cyanide concentrations of 300 ppm can lead to immediate collapse. The non-toxic antidote sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3) in intravenous injections increases the rate of conversion from cyanide to non-toxic thiocyanate.

Initial reports based on the autopsies of victims' bodies suggested cyanide poisoning based on which UCC's Dr. Bipan Avashia advised amyl nitrate and sodium thiosulphate.[32][33] Treatment was tentatively used on some people, with mixed results.[34][5]

Critics argue that both the Government and Union Carbide tried to avoid mentioning the emotionally provocative word "cyanide."[33]

Exposed to high temperatures, MIC breaks down to hydrogen cyanide (HCN). According to Kulling and Lorin, at +200 °C, 3% of the gas is HCN.[35] However, according to another scientific publication,[36] MIC when heated in the gas-phase starts to break down to hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and other products above 400 °C.

Chemically, HCN is known to be very reactive with MIC.[37] HCN is also known to react with hydrochloric acid, ammonia, and methylamine (also produced in tank 610 during the vigorous reaction with water and chloroform) and also with itself under acidic conditions to form trimers of HCN called triazenes.

Laboratory replication studies by CSIR and UCC scientists failed to detect any HCN or HCN-derived side products. None of the HCN-derived side products were detected in the tank residue.[38]
Long term effects
Long term health effects

All data about the health effects are still not available. The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) was forbidden to publish health effect data until 1994.[5]

A total of 36 wards were marked by the authorities as being "gas affected", affecting a population of 520,000. Of these, 200,000 were below 15 years of age, and 3,000 were pregnant women.[4][5] The official immediate death toll was 2,259, and in 1991, 3,928 deaths had been officially certified. Others estimate 8,000 died within two weeks.[4][5]

The government of Madhya Pradesh confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release.[3]

Later, the affected area was expanded to include 700,000 citizens. A government affidavit in 2006 stated the leak caused 558,125 injuries including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.[7]
Health care

In the immediate aftermath of the disaster, the health care system became overloaded. Within weeks, the State Government established a number of hospitals, clinics and mobile units in the gas-affected area to treat the victims.[5] Since the leak, large number of private practitioners were opened in Bhopal. In the severely affected areas, nearly 70 percent were underqualified doctors.[5] Medical staff was unprepared for the thousands of casualties. Doctors and hospitals were not aware about proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation and they were directed to give cough medicine and eye drops to the patients.[5]

The Government of India had focused primarily on increasing the hospital-based services for gas victims thus hospitals had been built after the disaster.[5] When UCC wanted to sell its shares in UCIL, it was directed by the Supreme Court to finance a 500-bed hospital for the medical care of the survivors. Thus, Bhopal Memorial Hospital and Research Centre (BMHRC) was inaugurated in 1998 and was obliged to give free care for survivors for eight years.[5] BMHRC was a 350-bedded super speciality hospital were heart surgery and hemodialysis were done however, there was dearth of gynaecology, obstetrics and paediatrics. Eight mini-units (outreach health centres) were started and free health care for gas victims were to be offered till 2006.[5] The management had also faced problems with strikes, and the quality of the health care being disputed.[39][40] Sambhavna Trust is a charitable trust, registered in 1995, that gives modern as well as ayurvedic treatments to gas victims, free of charge.[5][41]
Environmental rehabilitation

When the factory was closed in 1986, pipes, drums and tanks were sold. The MIC and the Sevin plants are still there, as are storages of different residues. Isolation material is falling down and spreading.[5] The area around the plant was used as a dumping area for hazardous chemicals. In 1982 tubewells in the vicinity of the UCIL factory had to be abandoned and tests in 1989 performed by UCC's laboratory revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the factory and inside the plant were toxic to fish.[42] Several other studies had also shown polluted soil and groundwater in the area. Reported polluting compounds include 1-naphthol, naphthalene, Sevin, tarry residue, mercury, toxic organochlorines, volatile organochlorine compounds, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachloroethane, hexachlorobutadiene, and the pesticide HCH.[5]

In order to provide safe drinking water to the population around the UCIL factory, Government of Madhya Pradesh presented a scheme for improvement of water supply.[43] In December 2008, the Madhya Pradesh High Court decided that the toxic waste should be incinerated at Ankleshwar in Gujarat, which was met by protests from activists all over India.[44] On 8 June 2012, the Centre for incineration of toxic Bhopal waste agreed to pay INR250 million (US$3.8 million) to dispose of UCIL chemical plants waste in Germany.[45] On 9 August 2012, Supreme court directed the Union and Madhya Pradesh Governments to, take immediate steps for disposal of toxic waste lying around and inside the factory within six-month.[46]

A US court rejected the law suit blaming UCC for causing soil and water pollution around the site of the plant and ruled that responsibility for remedial measures or related claims rested with the State Government and not with UCC.[47] In 2005, the state government invited various Indian architects to enter their "concept for development of a memorial complex for Bhopal gas tragedy victims at the site of Union Carbide". In 2011, a conference was held on the site, with participants from European universities which was aimed for the same.[48][49]
Occupational and habitation rehabilitation

33 of the 50 planned work-sheds for gas victims started. All except one was closed down by 1992.[5] 1986, the MP government invested in the Special Industrial Area Bhopal. 152 of the planned 200 work-sheds were built and in 2000, 16 were partially functioning.[5] It was estimated that 50,000 persons need alternative jobs, and that less than 100 gas victims had found regular employment under the government's scheme.[5] The government also planned 2486 flats in two- and four-story buildings in the "Widows colony" outside Bhopal. The water did not reach the upper floors and it was not possible to keep cattle which were their primary occupation. Infrastructure like buses, schools, etc. were missing for at least a decade.[5]
Economic rehabilitation

Immediate relieves were decided two days after the tragedy. Relief measures commenced in 1985 when food was distributed for a short period along with ration cards.[5] Madhya Pradesh government's finance department allocated INR874 million (US$13 million) for victim relief in July 1985.[50][51] Widow pension of INR200 (US$3.10)/per month (later INR750 (US$11)) were provided.[5] They government also decided to pay INR1500 (US$23) to families with monthly income INR500 (US$7.70) or less.[5] As a result of the interim relief, more children were able to attend school, more money was spent on treatment and food, and housing also eventually improved.[5] From 1990 interim relief of INR200 (US$3.10) was paid to everyone in the family who was born before the disaster.[5]

The final compensation, including interim relief for personal injury was for the majority INR25,000 (US$380). For death claim, the average sum paid out was INR62,000 (US$950).[5] Each claimant were to be categorised by a doctor. In court, the claimants were expected to prove "beyond reasonable doubt" that death or injury in each case was attributable to exposure. In 1992, 44 percent of the claimants still had to be medically examined.[5]

By the end of October 2003, according to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Relief and Rehabilitation Department, compensation had been awarded to 554,895 people for injuries received and 15,310 survivors of those killed. The average amount to families of the dead was $2,200.[52]

In 2007, 1,029,517 cases were registered and decided. Number of awarded cases were 574,304 and number of rejected cases 455,213. Total compensation awarded was INR15464.7 million (US$240 million).[43] <On 24 June 2010, the Union Cabinet of the Government of India approved a INR12650 million (US$190 million) aid package which would be funded by Indian taxpayers through the government.[53]
Union Carbide's defence

Now owned by Dow Chemical Company, Union Carbide denied the allegations against it on its website dedicated to the tragedy. The corporation claimed that the incident was the result of sabotage, stating that safety systems were in place and operative. It also stressed that it did all it could to alleviate human suffering following the disaster.[54]
Investigation into possible sabotage

Theories differ as to how the water entered the tank. At the time, workers were cleaning out pipes with water. The workers maintain that entry of water through the plant's piping system during the washing of lines was possible because a slip-blind was not used, the downstream bleeder lines were partially clogged, many valves were leaking, and the tank was not pressurised. The water, which was not draining properly through the bleeder valves, may have built up in the pipe, rising high enough to pour back down through another series of lines into the MIC storage tank. Once water had accumulated to a height of 6 metres (20 feet), it could drain by gravity flow back into the system. Alternatively, the water may have been routed through another standby "jumper line" that had only recently been connected to the system. Indian scientists suggested that additional water might have been introduced as a "back-flow" from the defectively designed vent-gas scrubber. However, none of these postulated routes of entry could be duplicated when tested by the Central Bureau of Investigators (CBI) and UCIL engineers.[55] [56] [57][58]

Union Carbide cited an investigation conducted by the engineering consulting firm Arthur D. Little, which concluded that a single employee secretly and deliberately introduced a large amount of water into the MIC tank by removing a meter and connecting a water hose directly to the tank through the metering port.[4][5][6][59] Carbide claimed that such a large amount of water could not have found its way into the tank by accident, and safety systems were not designed to deal with intentional sabotage. Documents cited in the Arthur D. Little report stated that the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) along with UCIL engineers tried to simulate the water-washing hypothesis as a route of the entry of water into the tank. This test failed to support this as a route of the water entry. UCC claims the plant staff falsified numerous records to distance themselves from the incident, and that the Indian Government impeded its investigation and declined to prosecute the employee responsible, presumably because that would weaken its allegations of negligence by Union Carbide.[60]
Safety and equipment issues

The corporation denied the claim that the valves on the tank were malfunctioning, and claimed that the documented evidence gathered after the incident showed that the valve close to the plant's water-washing operation was closed and was leak-tight. Furthermore, process safety systems had prevented water from entering the tank by accident. Carbide states that the safety concerns identified in 1982 were all allayed before 1984 and had nothing to do with the incident.[61]

The company admitted that the safety systems in place would not have been able to prevent a chemical reaction of that magnitude from causing a leak. According to Carbide, "in designing the plant's safety systems, a chemical reaction of this magnitude was not factored in" because "the tank's gas storage system was designed to automatically prevent such a large amount of water from being inadvertently introduced into the system" and "process safety systems—in place and operational—would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident". Instead, they claim that "employee sabotage—not faulty design or operation—was the cause of the tragedy".[61]
Analysis

One analysis shows that the causes of the leakage, irrespectively of how water entered the pipelines, were the design of the plant and the economic pressure. The parties responsible for the magnitude of the disaster, including the consequences, are Union Carbide Corporation and the Governments of India and Madhya Pradesh.[4][5][6] This is supported by the conclusions made by ILO.[62]
Response

The company stressed the "immediate action" taken after the disaster and their continued commitment to helping the victims. On 4 December, the day following the leak, Union Carbide sent material aid and several international medical experts to assist the medical facilities in Bhopal.[61] Union Carbide states on its website that it put $2 million into the Indian prime minister's immediate disaster relief fund on 11 December 1984.[61] The corporation established the Employees' Bhopal Relief Fund in February 1985, which raised more than $5 million for immediate relief.[63] According to Union Carbide, in August 1987, they made an additional $4.6 million in humanitarian interim relief available.[63]

Union Carbide stated that it also undertook several steps to provide continuing aid to the victims of the Bhopal disaster. The sale of its 50.9 percent interest in UCIL in April 1992 and establishment of a charitable trust to contribute to the building of a local hospital. The sale was finalised in November 1994. The hospital was begun in October 1995 and was opened in 2001. The company provided a fund with around $90 million from sale of its UCIL stock. In 1991, the trust had amounted approximately $100 million. The hospital catered for the treatment of heart, lung and eye problems.[54] UCC also provided a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocational-technical center in Bhopal, which was opened, but was later closed by the state government.[64] They also donated $5 million to the Indian Red Cross after the disaster.[64] They also developed a Responsible Care system with other members of the chemical industry as a response to the Bhopal crisis, which was designed to help prevent such an event in the future.[63]
Legal action against Union Carbide
Number of women pictured in black and white colour, sitting and protesting against Anderson and the company.
Victims of Bhopal disaster asked for Warren Anderson's extradition from the USA

Legal proceedings involving UCC, the United States and Indian governments, local Bhopal authorities, and the disaster victims started immediately after the catastrophe. Legal action against UCC dominated the aftermath of the disaster. Other issues have continued to develop including the problems of ongoing contamination and associated criticism of the clean-up operation undertaken by UCIL.
Legal proceedings leading to the settlement

On 14 December 1984, the chairman and CEO of UCC, Warren Anderson, addressed the US Congress, stressing the company's "commitment to safety" and promising to ensure that a similar incident "cannot happen again". The Indian Government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985, allowing the Government of India to act as the legal representative for victims of the disaster,[63] leading to the beginning of legal proceedings. In 1985, Henry Waxman, a California Democrat, called for a US government inquiry into the Bhopal disaster, which resulted in US legislation regarding the accidental release of toxic chemicals in the United States.[65] In March 1986 UCC proposed a settlement figure, endorsed by plaintiffs' US attorneys, of $350 million that would, according to the company, "generate a fund for Bhopal victims of between $500–600 million over 20 years". In May, litigation was transferred from the US to Indian courts by US District Court Judge. Following an appeal of this decision, the US Court of Appeals affirmed the transfer, judging, in January 1987, that UCIL was a "separate entity, owned, managed and operated exclusively by Indian citizens in India".[63]

The Government of India refused the offer from Union Carbide and claimed US$ 3.3 billion.[5] The Indian Supreme Court told both sides to come to an agreement and "start with a clean slate" in November 1988.[63] Eventually, in an out-of-court settlement reached in February 1989, Union Carbide agreed to pay US$ 470 million for damages caused in the Bhopal disaster, 15% of the original $3 billion claimed in the lawsuit.[5]

Throughout 1990, the Indian Supreme Court heard appeals against the settlement from "activist petitions". In October 1991, the Supreme Court upheld the original $470 million, dismissing any other outstanding petitions that challenged the original decision. The Court ordered the Indian government "to purchase, out of settlement fund, a group medical insurance policy to cover 100,000 persons who may later develop symptoms" and cover any shortfall in the settlement fund. It also requested UCC and its subsidiary UCIL "voluntarily" fund a hospital in Bhopal, at an estimated $17 million, to specifically treat victims of the Bhopal disaster. The company agreed to this.[63]
Charges against UCC and UCIL employees

UCC chairman, CEO Warren Anderson was arrested and released on bail by the Madhya Pradesh Police in Bhopal on 7 December 1984. Anderson was taken to UCC's house after which he was released six hours later on $2,100 bail and flown out on a government plane. These actions were allegedly taken under the direction of then chief secretary of the state, who was possibly instructed from chief minister's office, who himself flew out of Bhopal immediately.[66][67][68] Later in 1987, the Indian government summoned Anderson, eight other executives and two company affiliates with homicide charges to appear in Indian court.[69] In response, Union Carbide balked, saying the company is not under Indian jurisdiction.[69]

In 1991, the local Bhopal authorities charged Anderson, who had retired in 1986, with manslaughter, a crime that carries a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison. He was declared a fugitive from justice by the Chief Judicial Magistrate of Bhopal on 1 February 1992 for failing to appear at the court hearings in a culpable homicide case in which he was named the chief defendant. Orders were passed to the Government of India to press for an extradition from the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal of the decision of the lower federal courts in October 1993, meaning that victims of the Bhopal disaster could not seek damages in a US court.[63]

In 2004, the Indian Supreme Court ordered the Indian government to release any remaining settlement funds to victims. And in September 2006, the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims announced that all original compensation claims and revised petitions had been "cleared".[63] The Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York City upheld the dismissal of remaining claims in the case of Bano v. Union Carbide Corporation in 2006. This move blocked plaintiffs' motions for class certification and claims for property damages and remediation. In the view of UCC, "the ruling reaffirms UCC's long-held positions and finally puts to rest—both procedurally and substantively—the issues raised in the class action complaint first filed against Union Carbide in 1999 by Haseena Bi and several organisations representing the residents of Bhopal".[63]

In June 2010, seven former employees of UCIL, all Indian nationals and many in their 70s, were convicted of causing death by negligence and each sentenced to two years imprisonment and fined Rs.1 lakh (US$2,124). All were released on bail shortly after the verdict. The names of those convicted are: Keshub Mahindra, former non-executive chairman of Union Carbide India Limited; V.P. Gokhale, managing director; Kishore Kamdar, vice-president; J. Mukund, works manager; S.P. Chowdhury, production manager; K.V. Shetty, plant superintendent; and S.I. Qureshi, production assistant.

Federal class action litigation, Sahu v. Union Carbide and Warren Anderson, sought damages for personal injury, medical monitoring and injunctive relief in the form of clean-up of the drinking water supplies for residential areas near the Bhopal plant. The lawsuit was dismissed and subsequent appeal denied.[70]
Ongoing contamination
A view of MIC plant surrounded by few metal pipes
Deteriorating portion of the MIC plant, decades after the gas leak. Contributor to ongoing contamination.

Chemicals abandoned at the plant continue to leak and pollute the groundwater.[71][72][73] Whether the chemicals pose a health hazard is disputed.[74] Contamination at the site and surrounding area was not caused by the gas leakage. The area around the plant was used as a dumping ground for hazardous chemicals and by 1982 water wells in the vicinity of the UCIL factory had to be abandoned.[5] UCC states that "after the incident, UCIL began clean-up work at the site under the direction of Indian central and state government authorities", which was continued after 1994 by the successor to UCIL. The successor, Eveready Industries India, Limited (EIIL), ended cleanup on the site in 1998, when it terminated its 99-year lease and turned over control of the site to the state government of Madhya Pradesh.[54][63]

UCC's laboratory tests in 1989 revealed that soil and water samples collected from near the factory were toxic to fish. Twenty one areas inside the plant were reported to be highly polluted. In 1991 the municipal authorities declared that water from over 100 wells was hazardous for health if used for drinking.[5] In 1994 it was reported that 21% of the factory premises were seriously contaminated with chemicals.[42][75][76] Beginning in 1999, studies made by Greenpeace and others from soil, groundwater, wellwater and vegetables from the residential areas around UCIL and from the UCIL factory area show contamination with a range of toxic heavy metals and chemical compounds. Substances found, according to the reports, are naphthol, naphthalene, Sevin, tarry residues, alpha naphthol, mercury, organochlorines, chromium, copper, nickel, lead, hexachlorethane, hexachlorobutadiene, pesticide HCH (BHC), volatile organic compounds and halo-organics.[75][76][77][78] Many of these contaminants were also found in breast milk of women living near the area.[79] Soil tests were conducted by Greenpeace in 1999. One sample (IT9012) from "sediment collected from drain under former Sevin plant" showed mercury levels to be at "20,000 and 6 million times" higher than expected levels. Organochlorine compounds at elevated levels were also present in groundwater collected from (sample IT9040) a 4.4 meter depth "bore-hole within the former UCIL site". This sample was obtained from a source posted with a warning sign which read "Water unfit for consumption".[80] Chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as well as trichloroethylene, known to impair fetal development, at 50 times above safety limits specified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[79] In 2002, an inquiry by Fact-Finding Mission on Bhopal found a number of toxins, including mercury, lead, 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene, dichloromethane and chloroform, in nursing women's breast milk. A 2004 BBC Radio 5 broadcast reported the site is contaminated with toxic chemicals including benzene hexachloride and mercury, held in open containers or loose on the ground.[81] A drinking water sample from a well near the site had levels of contamination 500 times higher than the maximum limits recommended by the World Health Organization.[82] In 2009, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a Delhi based pollution monitoring lab, released test results showing pesticide groundwater contamination up to three kilometres from the factory.[83] Also in 2009, the BBC took a water sample from a frequently used hand pump, located just north of the plant. The sample, tested in UK, was found to contain 1000 times the World Health Organization's recommended maximum amount of carbon tetrachloride, a carcinogenic toxin.[84] In October 2011, the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment published an article and video by two British environmental scientists, showing the current state of the plant, landfill and solar evaporation ponds and calling for renewed international efforts to provide the necessary skills to clean up the site and contaminated groundwater.[85]
Activism

Since 1984, individual activists have played a role in the aftermath of the tragedy. The most well known is Satinath Sarangi (Sathyu), a metallurgic engineer who arrived at Bhopal the day after the leakage. He founded several activist groups, as well as Sambhavna Trust, the clinic for gas affected patients, where he is the manager.[5] Other activists are Rashida Bee and Champa Devi Shukla, who received the Goldman Prize in 2004, and Abdul Jabbar.[86][87]
Local activism

Soon after the accident, representatives from different activist groups arrived. The activists worked on organising the gas victims, which led to violent repression from the police and the government.[5]

Numerous actions have been performed: demonstrations, sit-ins, hungerstrikes, marches combined with pamphlets, books, and articles. Every anniversary, actions are performed. Often these include marches around Old Bhopal, ending with burning an effigy of Warren Anderson.
International activism

Cooperation with international NGOs including Pesticide Action Network UK and Greenpeace started soon after the tragedy. One of the earliest reports is the Trade Union report from ILO 1985.[57]

In 1994, the International Medical Commission on Bhopal (IMCB) met in Bhopal. Their work contributed to long term health effects being officially recognised.

Important international actions have been the tour to Europe and USA in 2003,[88] the marches to Delhi in 2006 and 2008, all including hungerstrikes, and the Bhopal Europe Bus Tour in 2009.

Bhopal is one of the knots in an international NGO network, working against corporations' violations of environment and human rights.[5]
Activist organisations

At least 14 different NGOs were immediately engaged.[5] The first disaster reports were published by activist organisations, Eklavya and the Delhi Science Forum.

Around ten local organisations, engaged on long term, have been identified. Two of the most active organisations are the women's organisations Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila-Stationery Karmachari Sangh and Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Udyog Sangthan.[5]

More than 15 national organisations have been engaged along with a number of international organisations.[5]

Some of the most important organisations are:

    International Campaign For Justice in Bhopal (ICJB) Coordinating international activities.
    Bhopal Medical Appeal Collects funds for the Sambhavna Trust.
    Sambhavna Trust or Bhopal People's Health and Documentation Clinic. Provides medical care for gas affected patients and those living in water contaminated area.
    Chingari Trust Provides medical care for children being born in Bhopal with malformations and brain damages.
    Students for Bhopal Based in USA.
    International Medical Commission on Bhopal Provided medical information 1994–2000.

Settlement fund hoax
Bichlbaum as Finisterra on BBC World News

On 3 December 2004, the twentieth anniversary of the disaster, a man claiming to be a Dow representative named Jude Finisterra was interviewed on BBC World News. He claimed that the company had agreed to clean up the site and compensate those harmed in the incident, by liquidating Union Carbide for US$12 billion.[89][90] Immediately afterward, Dow's share price fell 4.2% in 23 minutes, for a loss of $2 billion in market value. Dow quickly issued a statement saying that they had no employee by that name—that he was an impostor, not affiliated with Dow, and that his claims were a hoax. The BBC later broadcast a correction and an apology.[91]

Jude Finisterra was actually Andy Bichlbaum, a member of the activist prankster group The Yes Men. In 2002, The Yes Men issued a fake press release explaining why Dow refused to take responsibility for the disaster and started up a website, at "DowEthics.com", designed to look like the real Dow website, but with what they felt was a more accurate cast on the events.[92]
Monitoring of Bhopal activists

A release of an email cache related to intelligence research organisation Stratfor was leaked by WikiLeaks on 27 February 2012.[93] It revealed that Dow Chemical had engaged Stratfor to spy on the public and personal lives of activists involved in the Bhopal disaster, including the Yes Men. Regular, even daily emails to Dow representatives from hired security analysts list the YouTube videos liked, Twitter and Facebook posts made and the public appearances of these activists, including the Yes Men.[94] Stratfor released a statement condemning the revelation by Wikileaks while neither confirming nor denying the accuracy of the reports, and would only state that it had acted within the bounds of the law. Dow Chemical also refrained to comment on the matter.[95]

The Swedish family physician (MD) Ingrid Eckerman, member of the International Medical Commission on Bhopal in 1994 and author of "The Bhopal Saga – causes and consequences of the world's largest industrial disaster",[5] published in 2004, is since 2008 denied visa to India.[96]
See also
Portal icon     India portal
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    List of industrial disasters
    System accident


References

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    Chouhan TR (2005). "The Unfolding of Bhopal Disaster". Journal of Loss Prevention in the process industry 18 (4–6): 205–208. doi:10.1016/j.jlp.2005.07.025.
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    D'Silva, Themistocles (2006). The Black Box of Bhopal: A Closer Look at the World's Deadliest Industrial Disaster. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford. ISBN 1-4120-8412-1. Review Written by a retired former employee of UCC who was a member of the investigation committee. Includes several original documents including correspondence between UCIL and the Ministries of the Government of India.
    Eckerman, Ingrid (2001). Chemical Industry and Public Health—Bhopal as an example (PDF). Essay for MPH. A short overview, 57 pages, 82 references.
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    Eckerman, Ingrid (2006). "The Bhopal Disaster 1984 – working conditions and the role of the trade unions" (PDF). Asian Pacific Newsletter on occupational health and safety 13 (2).
    Eckerman, Ingrid (2011). Bhopal Gas Catastrophy 1984: Causes and consequences (in Nriagu JO ed. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, volume 1, pp. 302–316). Burlington: Elsevier. Doi 10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00359-7
    Eckerman, Ingrid (2013). Bhopal Catastrophe 1984: Causes and Consequences (in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences). Elsevier. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124095489019035
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    Johnson S, Sahu R, Jadon N, Duca C (2009). Contamination of soil and water inside and outside the Union Carbide India Limited, Bhopal. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment. In Down to Earth
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    Labunska I, Stephenson A, Brigden K, Stringer R, Santillo D, Johnston P.A. (1999). The Bhopal Legacy. Toxic contaminants at the former Union Carbide factory site, Bhopal, India: 15 years after the Bhopal accident (PDF).Greenpeace Research Laboratories, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter UK
    Lepowski, W. "Ten Years Later: Bhopal". Chemical and Engineering News, 19 December 1994.
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    Operating Manual Part II. Methyl Isocyanate Unit. Union Carbide India Limited, Agricultural Products Division (1979).
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List of industrial disasters

Deaths	Incident
3,787 to 19,000+	Bhopal disaster (India, 1984)
1,549	Benxihu Colliery explosion, China, 1942
1,129	Collapse of the Rana Plaza (Savar Upazila, Dhaka District, Bangladesh, April 24, 2013)[14]
1,099	Courrières mine disaster, Courrières, France, March 10, 1906
687	Mitsubishi Hōjō, Kyūshū, Japan, December 15, 1914
682	Laobaidong colliery coal dust explosion Datong, China, May 9, 1960
568+	Texas City Disaster (Texas City, Texas, April 16 & 17, 1947)
512	Sumitomo Besshi bronze mine area, landslide with debris flow disaster, Niihama, Shikoku, Japan, 1899
500+	San Juanico Disaster (Mexico City, November 19, 1984)[15]
458	Mitsui Miike Coal Mine disasterMitsui Miike, Ōmuta, Fukuoka, Japan, November 9, 1963[16]
439	Senghenydd Colliery Disaster, Senghenydd, Wales, 1913
437	Coalbrook, South Africa, 1960
426	Wankie coal mine disasterWankie, Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, 1972
422	New Yubari, Yūbari, Hokkaidō, Japan, November 28, 1914
405	Bergkamen mining disaster, West Germany, 1946
388	Oaks Colliery, Barnsley, England, 1866
376	Onoura, Kirino, Kyūshū, Japan, December 21, 1917
375	Bihar, India, 1965
372	Chasnala mining disaster, Sudamdih Colliery Dhanbad, India, 1975
365	Hokoku, Itoda, Kyūshū, Japan, July 20, 1907
362	Monongah Mining disaster, Monongah, West Virginia, U.S., 1907
344	Pretoria Pit Disaster, Westhoughton, England, 1910
319	Marie iron mine fire, Příbram, Czech Republic, May 31, 1892
300+	2012 Pakistan garment factory fires, Karachi and Lahore, Pakistan, September 11, 2012
300+	Nambija mine disaster, landslide destroying several mines and buildings, Ecuador, May 9, 1993
298	Saarland, West Germany, 1962
277	2008 Shanxi mudslide caused by collapse of a mine landfill in Xiangfen, Linfen, Shanxi, China, September 8, 2008[17]
266	Gresford DisasterGresford, Wales, 1934
263	Dawson, New Mexico, U.S., 1913
263	Incirharmani, Kozlu, Zonguldak, Turkey, March 3, 1992
262	Marcinelle, Belgium, 1956
259	1909 Cherry Mine disaster, Cherry, Illinois, U.S., 1909
254	Kogushi sulfur mine collapse, western Gunma, Japan, 1937
243	Onoura, Kirino, Kyūshū, Japan, August 5, 1909
243	PetroChina Chuandongbei natural gas field explosion, Guoqiao, Kai County, Chongqing, China, 2003[18]
239	Darr Mine Disaster, Jacobs Creek, Pennsylvania, U.S., 1907
236	Chikuho Yamano, Kyūshū, Japan, June 1, 1965
235	Larisch's mines (Jan and Františka), Karviná, Czech Republic, June 14, 1894
220	El Cobre tailing dam and copper mine failure by earthquake in Chile on March 28, 1965
216	Fraterville, Tennessee, U.S., May 19, 1902
214	2005 Sunjiawan mine disaster, Sunjiawan, Fuxin, Liaoning, China, February 15, 2005
210	Hokoku, Itoda, Kyūshū, Japan, June 15, 1899
202	Bolevec ammunition factory explosion, Plzeň, Czech Republic, May 25, 1917
200+	Vila Socó oil spill fire (Cubatão, São Paulo, Brazil, February 25, 1984)
200+	Scofield Mine disaster, Scofield, Utah, U.S., 1900
200+	Mina Rosita Vieja disaster, San Juan de Sabinas, Coahuila, Mexico, February 27, 1908
189	Hillcrest mine disaster, Hillcrest, Alberta, Canada, 1914
183	Chosei, Ube, Japan, February 3, 1942
181	Mine disaster with flooding, Huayuan, Xintai, Shandong, China, August 17, 2007
180	Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1990
177	General Mining Union Kinross gold mine fire, Transvaal, South Africa, on September 16, 1986
177	Mitsubishi Bibai, Bibai, Hokkaidō, Japan, 1941
169	Hanna Mine Disaster, Hanna, Wyoming, U.S., 1903
168	Speculator Mine disaster, (Butte, Montana, June 8, 1917)
167	Piper Alpha oil rig disaster (North Sea, July 6, 1988)
166	Chenjiashan, Tongchuan, Shaanxi, China, November 28, 2004
160+	Tacoa powerplant fire, Vargas State, Venezuela, December 19, 1982.[citation needed]
159	Muchonggou, Shuicheng, Guizhou, China, September 26, 2000
155	Minnie Pit, Podmore Hall, Halmer End, Staffordshire, UK, January 12, 1918
153	Mina de Barroteran, Coahuila, Mexico, March 31, 1969
151	Hausdorf, Germany, currently Jugów, Poland, July 9, 1930
150	Nanaimo mine explosion, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada, 1887
148	Daping[disambiguation needed], Tongchuan, Henan, China, October 20, 2004
147	Sanjiaohe, Hongdong, Shanxi, China, April 21, 1991
146	Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, (New York City, 1911)
144	Aberfan landslide disaster (Wales, 1966)
142	Nelson, Osek, Czech Republic, January 3, 1934
134	Uchigo, Iwaki, Japan, March 27, 1927
134	Dongfeng, Qitaihe, Heilongjiang, China, November 27, 2005
125	Buffalo Creek Flood / Pittston Coal Company dam failure, (West Virginia, United States, 1972)
125	Springhill mining disaster, Canada, February 21, 1891
125	Amaga, Angelopolis, Antioquia, Colombia, July 15, 1977
124	Chengzihe, Jixi, Heilongjiang, China, June 20, 2002
123	Alexander Kielland wreck, oil platform destroyed by high wind, Ekofisk oil field, Norway, 1980
123	Daxing, Xingning, Guangdong, China, August 6, 2005
121	Victor American Hastings Mine Disaster, near Ludlow, Colorado, April 27, 1917
119	Orient #2 Mine, West Frankfort, Illinois, U.S., December 25, 1951
111	1947 Centralia mine disaster, Centralia, Illinois, U.S., March 25, 1947
110	Avondale Mine Disaster, Plymouth, Pennsylvania, U.S., September 6, 1869
109	Everettville, West Virginia, U.S., April 30, 1927
108	Ulyanovskaya, Novokuznetsk, Kuzbass Region, Siberia, Russia, March 19, 2007
108	Dukla, Dolná Súča, Slovakia, July 7, 1961
108	Jan, Karviná, Czech Republic, March 5, 1885
105	Vaal Reef gold mine elevator failure, Orkney, Klerksdorp, South Africa, May 11, 1995
105	Ruizhiyuan, Linfen, Shanxi, China, December 5, 2007
104	William pit disaster, Whitehaven, Cumberland, United Kingdom, August 15, 1947
101	(methane explosion) Zasyadko, Donetsk, Ukraine, November 18, 2007
100	Armutçuk, Ereğli, Zonguldak, Turkey, March 8, 1983
94	Haishan, Taipei, Taiwan, December 5, 1984
93	Hokutan Yubari, Yubari, Hokkaidō, Japan, October 16, 1981
92	Nová Jáma, Orlová, Czech Republic, May 20, 1919
92	Rudnici, Aleksinac, Nisava District, Serbia, November 18, 1989
92	Gangzi, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China, July 22, 2001
92	Baltimore Colliery explosion, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, U.S., June 5, 1919
91	Dongcun, Datong, Shanxi, China, November 27, 1996
91	Bartley, West Virginia, U.S., January 10, 1940
91	Hard rock mine fire (Sunshine mine, Kellogg, Idaho, May 2, 1972)
89	Xingsheng, Pingdingshan, Henan, China, March 11, 1997
86	Luling coal mine, Hefei, Anhui, China, May 13, 2003
84	Ocean Ranger oil platform sinking, Grand Banks of Newfoundland, Canada, February 15, 1982
84	Cross Mountain Mine disaster, Briceville, Tennessee, U.S., December 9, 1911
83	MitsuiMiike coal mine, Ōmuta, Fukuoka, Japan, January 18, 1984
83	Shenlong, Fukang, Xinjiang Uygur, China, July 13, 2005
82	Barakova, Krasnodon, Ukraine, March 11, 2000
82	Millfield Mine disaster, Dover Township, Athens County, Ohio, U.S., November 5, 1930
79	Mexicana Flight 704, (near Monterrey, 1969)
78	Farmington Mine disaster, Farmington, West Virginia, U.S., November 20, 1968
74	Springhill mining disaster, Springhill, Nova Scotia, Canada, October 23, 1958
74	Smith Mine disaster, Bearcreek, Montana, U.S., February 27, 1943
73	San Fernando, Amaga, Antioquia, Colombia, June 17, 2010.[citation needed]
72	Willow Grove #10 explosion, Neffs, Ohio, U.S., March 16, 1940[19]
72	Price-Pancoast Colliery fire, Throop, Pennsylvania, April 7, 1911
71	Ueda Kamikiyo, Kawara, Kyūshū, Japan, March 9, 1961
71	Trimdon Grange, County Durham, England, February 16, 1882[20]
68	Kukje Rubber Manufacturing plant No.2 fire at Busan, South Korea, March 2, 1960
68	Zyryanouskaya, Novokuznetsk, KuzbassSiberia, Russia, December 2, 1997
66	Mossfield, Longton, Staffordshire, U.K., October 16, 1889
65	KTS Composite Textile factory fire, at Chittagong, Bangladesh on February 24, 2006
65	Brunner Mine disaster, West Coast, New Zealand, March 26, 1896
65	Pluto, Záluží, Czech Republic, September 4, 1981[21]Hlobane, Vryheid, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, September 3, 1983
64	Sverdlovsk anthrax leak (Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia, April 2, 1979)
63	St. Helena gold mine explosion by methane gas, Welkom, Free State, South Africa on August 31, 1987
63	Skochynsky, Donetsk, Ukraine, April 4, 1998
63	Sonman Mine explosion, Portage, Pennsylvania, U.S., July 15, 1940
62	Hlubina, Ostrava, Czech Republic, July 29, 1867
61	Trojice, Ostrava, Czech Republic, January 3, 1891
60	Shahe iron mine caught fire, Hebei, China, November 22, 2004
60	Beilongfeng, Fushun, Liaoning, China, May 28, 1997
59	Xishui mine, Shanxi province, China, March 20, 2005
59	Bettina, Orlová, Czech Republic, March 26, 1885
58	Twin Shaft Disaster, Pittston, Pennsylvania, U.S., June 28, 1896
56	Bright Sparkler fireworks factory explosion at Sungai Buloh, Malaysia, 1991
55	Four-story Rosamor Furniture ameublements plant fire, Lissasfa, Casablanca, Morocco on April 25, 2008
54	Hlubina, Ostrava, Czech Republic, May 22, 1960
54	Františka, Záluží, Czech Republic, 1860
54	1932 Moweaqua Coal Mine disaster, Moweaqua, Illinois, December 24, 1932
53	Secunda, Mpumalanga, East Transvaal, South Africa, May 13, 1993
52	Zasyadka, Donetsk, Ukraine, August 19, 2001
47	Auchinloch, North Lanarkshire, Scotland, September 18, 1959
45	Surran range, Quetta, Pakistan, March 21, 2011
45	Abertillery, Blaenau Gwent, Wales, June 28, 1960
43	Staříč, Czech Republic, December 30, 1976
43	Muchonggou, Shuicheng, Guizhou, China, February 24, 2003
40	Lapua ammunition factory explosion (Finland, 1976)
39	Springhill, Nova Scotia, Canada, November 1, 1956
38	Hurricane Creek mine disaster, Hyden, Kentucky, U.S., December 30, 1970
37	Czechowice-Dziedzice Refinery fire, Poland, June 26–27, 1971
36	Michálka, Ostrava, Czech Republic, October 4, 1950
36	Donbass, Donetsk, Ukraine, July 19, 2004
36	Lancashire Mine, Shanktown, Pennsylvania, U.S., January 26, 1924
35	West Gate Bridge collapse (during construction), Melbourne, Australia. October 15, 1970
34	Naomi Mine explosion, Fayette City, Pennsylvania, U.S., December 1, 1907
34	Dukla, Šardice, Czech Republic, June 9, 1970
33	Anna, Souš, Czech Republic, 1890
31	Industria Mirafe Toy Factory blast, Ibi, Alicante, Spain on August 16, 1968.[citation needed]
31	ČSA, Karviná, Czech Republic, March 22, 1977
30	Osceola Mine fire, copper mine fire in Osceola Township, Houghton County, Michigan, on September 7, 1895[22]
30	Holditch Colliery, Chesterton, Staffordshire, UK, July 2, 1937
30	Barbora, Karviná, Czech Republic, October 18, 1990
30	Abaiskaya, Abai, Karaganda Oblast, Kazakhstan, January 11, 2008
29	AZF factory explosion (chemical), Toulouse, France, September 21, 2001
29	Pike River Mine disaster, Greymouth, New Zealand, November 19, 2010
29	Upper Big Branch mine explosion, Montcoal, West Virginia, April 5, 2010
29	Nordegg, Alberta, Canada, October 31, 1941
28	Flixborough disaster, (England, June 1, 1974)
26	Paskov, Paskov, Czech Republic, April 4, 1970
26	Westray Mine, Nova Scotia, Canada, May 9, 1992
25	Doubrava, Czech Republic, May 7, 1985
25	Chatterley Whitfield, Staffordshire, February 7, 1881
24	Nanshan Colliery disaster, Shanxi Province, China, November 13, 2006
24	Doubrava, Czech Republic, February 12, 1949
23	Phillips Disaster (Pasadena, Texas, USA, October 23, 1989)
23	Methane explosion in Halemba coal mine, Ruda Śląska, Poland, November 21, 2006
22	Hindustan Petroleum Refinery fire – 14 September 1997, Vishakapatnam, Andhra pradesh, India[23]
21	Boston Molasses Disaster (Boston, 1919)
21	Kings Bay, Svalbard, Norway, November 5, 1962[24]
20	2009 Handlová mine blast, Handlová, Slovakia, August 10, 2009
19	(with 20 injured) methane explosion in Halemba coal mine, Ruda Śląska Poland January 10, 1990
17	Ganglu Iron and Steel Co Ltd., gas leak (Hebei, China, December 24, 2008)
17	Merriespruit tailings dam disaster, Virginia, Free State, South Africa, February 22, 1994
17	Mine No. 9, Sturgis, Union County, Kentucky, U.S., June 8, 1925
16	Ningxia, China, October 16, 2008
15	West Fertilizer Company explosion, West, Texas, USA, April 17, 2013
15	BP Americas Texas Cityisomerization unit explosion (Texas City, Texas, USA, March 23, 2005)
11	Kingsport, TN Chemical Plant Explosion, Oct 1960
11	Robin Hood Flour Company grain storage elevator explosion (Davenport, Iowa, USA, 1975)
11	BPDeepwater Horizon explosion (Gulf of Mexico, April 20, 2010)
7	Tesoro Refinery [Anacortes, Washington] (April 2, 2010)
5	Xcel Energy Cabin Creek Hydroelectric Plant Fire (Georgetown, Colorado October 2, 2007)

Defense industry
    December 6, 1917: Halifax explosion. A ship loaded with about 9000 tons of high explosives destined for France caught fire as a result of a collision in Halifax harbour, and exploded. The most powerful explosion in world history before the first atomic bomb test in New Mexico. Killed about 2000, injured about 9000.
    July 17, 1944: Port Chicago Disaster. A munitions explosion that killed 320 people occurred at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in Port Chicago, California.
    August 9, 1965: Little Rock AFB in Searcy, Arkansas. 53 contract workers were killed during a fire at a Titan missile silo. The cause of the fire was determined to be a welding rod damaging a hydraulic hose allowing hydraulic vapors to leak and spread throughout the silo, which were then ignited by an open flame source.
    April 10, 1988: Ojhri Camp. A military storage center in Rawalpindi Pakistan exploded, killing more than 1,300 people.
    July 11, 2011: Evangelos Florakis Naval Base explosion Cyprus. A munitions dump explosion. 13 people were killed; among them the captain of the base, twin brothers that were serving there as marines, and four firefighters that went there to help.
Energy industry

    May 1962: The Centralia, Pennsylvania coal mine fire began, forcing the gradual evacuation of the Centralia borough. The fire continues to burn in the abandoned borough.
    March 1967: The Torrey Canyon supertanker was shipwrecked off the west coast of Cornwall, England, causing an environmental disaster. This was the first major oil spill at sea.
    August, 1975: The Banqiao Dam flooded in the Henan Province of China due to extraordinarily heavy rains and poor construction quality of the dam, which was built during Great Leap Forward. The flood immediately killed over 100,000 people, and another 150,000 died of subsequent epidemic diseases and famine, bringing the total death toll to around 250,000—making it the worst technical disaster ever.
    March 16, 1978: The Amoco Cadiz, an VLCC owned by the company Amoco (now merged with BP) sank near the Northwest coasts of France, resulting in the spilling of 68,684,000 US Gallons of crude oil (1,635,000 barrels). This is the largest oil spill of its kind (spill from an oil tanker) in history.
    March 28, 1979: Three Mile Island accident. Partial nuclear meltdown. Mechanical failures in the non-nuclear secondary system, followed by a stuck-open pilot-operated relief valve (PORV) in the primary system, allowed large amounts of reactor coolant to escape. Plant operators initially failed to recognize the loss of coolant, resulting in a partial meltdown. The reactor was brought under control but not before up to 481 PBq (13 million curies) of radioactive gases were released into the atmosphere.[1]
    June 3, 1979: Ixtoc I oil spill. The Ixtoc I exploratory oil well suffered a blowout resulting in the third largest oil spill and the second largest accidental spill in history.
    November 20, 1980: A Texaco oil rig drilled into a salt mine transforming the Lake Peigneur, a freshwater lake before the accident, into a salt water lake.
    February 15, 1982: The mobile offshore oil rig Ocean Ranger is struck by a rogue wave off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada and sinks with the loss of all 84 crew.
    July 23, 1984: Romeoville, Illinois, Union Oil refinery explosion killed 19 people.
    November 19, 1984: San Juanico Disaster, an explosion at a liquid petroleum gas tank farm killed hundreds and injured thousands in San Juanico, Mexico.
    April 26, 1986: Chernobyl disaster. At the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Prypiat, Ukraine a test on reactor number four goes out of control, resulting in a nuclear meltdown. The ensuing steam explosion and fire killed up to 50 people with estimates that there may be between 4,000 and several hundred thousand additional cancer deaths over time. Fallout could be detected as far away as Canada. The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, covering portions of Belarus and Ukraine surrounding Prypiat, remains contaminated and mostly uninhabited. Prypiat itself was totally evacuated and remains as a ghost town.
    May 5, 1988: Norco, Louisiana, Shell Oil refinery explosion after hydrocarbon gas escaped from a corroded pipe in a catalytic cracker and was ignited. Louisiana state police evacuated 2,800 residents from nearby neighborhoods. Seven workers were killed and 42 injured. The total cost arising from the Norco blast is estimated at US$ 706 million.
    July 6, 1988: Piper Alpha disaster. An explosion and resulting fire on a North Sea oil production platform kills 167 men. Total insured loss is about US$ 3.4 billion. To date it is rated as the world's worst offshore oil disaster in terms both of lives lost and impact to industry.
    March 24, 1989: Exxon Valdez oil spill. The Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, hits Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef dumping an estimated minimum 10.8 million US gallons (40.9 million litres, or 250,000 barrels) of crude oil into the sea. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters ever to occur in history.[2] 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds died as well as at least 2,800 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbor seals, 247 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, and billions of salmon and herring eggs were destroyed.[3] Overall reductions in population have been seen in various ocean animals, including stunted growth in pink salmon populations.[4] Sea otters and ducks also showed higher death rate in following years, partially because they ingested prey from contaminated soil and from ingestion of oil residues on hair due to grooming.[5] The effects of the spill continue to be felt 20 years later.
    March 23, 2005: Texas City Refinery explosion. An explosion occurred at a BP refinery in Texas City, Texas. It is the third largest refinery in the United States and one of the largest in the world, processing 433,000 barrels of crude oil per day and accounting for 3% of that nation's gasoline supply. Over 100 were injured, and 15 were confirmed dead, including employees of the Fluor Corporation as well as BP. BP has since accepted that its employees contributed to the accident. Several level indicators failed, leading to overfilling of a knock out drum, and light hydrocarbons concentrated at ground level throughout the area. A nearby running diesel truck set off the explosion.
    December 11, 2005: Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire. A series of explosions at the Buncefield oil storage depot, described as the largest peacetime explosion in Europe, devastated the terminal and many surrounding properties. There were no fatalities. Total damages have been forecast as £750 million.

    February 7, 2010: 2010 Connecticut power plant explosion. A large explosion occurred at a Kleen Energy Systems 620-megawatt, Siemens combined cycle gas- and oil- fired power plant in Middletown, Connecticut, United States. Preliminary reports attributed the cause of the explosion to a test of the plant's energy systems.[6] The plant was still under construction and scheduled to start supplying energy in June 2010.[7] The number of injuries was eventually established to be 27.[8] Five people died in the explosion.[9]
    April 20, 2010: Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. 11 oil platform workers died in an explosion and fire that resulted in a massive oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, considered the largest offshore spill in U.S. history.[10]
    March 2011: Fukushima I nuclear accidents in Japan. Regarded as the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster, there were no direct deaths but a few of the plant's workers were severely injured or killed by the disaster conditions resulting from the earthquake.
    October 29, 2012: Hurricane Sandy caused a ConEdison power plant to explode, causing a blackout in most of Midtown Manhattan. The blue light emitted from the arc made places as far as Brooklyn glow. No person was killed or injured.
    July 6, 2013: Lac-Mégantic, Quebec Canada. Lac-Mégantic derailment. Forty seven people were killed when there was a derailment of an oil shipment train. The oil shipment caught fire, exploded and more than thirty buildings were destroyed. It is the fourth deadliest rail accident in Canadian history.

Food industry

    May 2, 1878: The Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis was destroyed by a flour dust explosion, killing 18. The mill was rebuilt with updated technology. The explosion led to new safety standards in the milling industry.[11]
    January 15, 1919: The Boston Molasses Disaster. A large molasses tank burst and a wave of molasses rushed through the streets at an estimated 35 mph (56 km/h), killing 21 and injuring 150. The event has entered local folklore, and residents claim that on a hot summer day, the area still smells of molasses.
    February 6, 1979: The (Roland Mill), located in Bremen, Germany, was destroyed by a flour dust explosion, killing 14 and injuring 17.
    September 3, 1991: 1991 Hamlet chicken processing plant fire in Hamlet, North Carolina, where locked doors trapped workers in a burning processing plant, causing 25 deaths.
    September 3, 1998: 1998 Haysville KN grain elevator explosion in Haysville, Kansas. A series of dust explosions in a large grain storage facility resulted in the deaths of seven people.[12]
    February 7, 2008: The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery explosion in Port Wentworth, Georgia, United States. Thirteen people were killed and 42 injured when a dust explosion occurred at a sugar refinery owned by Imperial Sugar.
    See Also Grain elevator explosions

Manufacturing industry

    January 10, 1860: Pemberton Mill was a large factory in Lawrence, Massachusetts that collapsed without warning. An estimated 145 workers were killed and 166 injured.
    March 20, 1905: Grover Shoe Factory disaster was a boiler explosion, building collapse and fire that killed 58 people and injured 150 in Brockton, Massachusetts.
    March 25, 1911: Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City. This was a major industrial disaster in the U.S., causing the death of more than 100 garment workers who either died in the fire or jumped to their deaths. The fire led to legislation requiring improved factory safety standards and helped spur the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, which fought for better working conditions for sweatshop workers in that industry.
    November 23, 1984 MESIT factory collapse. A part of a factory in Uherské Hradiště, Czechoslovakia collapsed, killing 18 workers and injuring 43. The accident was kept secret by the communist regime, however, the news broke the iron curtain and made it to the western media.[13]
    May 10, 1993: Kader Toy Factory fire. A fire started in a poorly built factory in Thailand. Exit doors were locked and the stairwell collapsed. 188 workers were killed, mostly young women.
    May 13, 2000: Enschede fireworks disaster. A fire and explosion at a fireworks depot in Enschede, Netherlands resulted in 22 deaths and another 947 were injured. About 1,500 homes are damaged or destroyed. The damage is estimated to be over US$ 300 million in insured losses.
    April 18, 2007: Qinghe Special Steel Corporation disaster. A ladle holding molten steel separated from the overhead iron rail, fell, tipped, and killed 32 workers, injuring another 6.
    February 1, 2008: Istanbul fireworks explosion. An unlicensed fireworks factory exploded accidentally, leaving by some reports at least 22 people dead and at least 100 injured.
    September 11, 2012: Karachi, Pakistan, 289 people died in a fire at the Ali Enterprises garment factory, which made ready-to-wear clothing for Western export.
    November 24, 2012: Dhaka Tasreen Fashions fire. A seven story factory fire outside of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, killed at least 112 people, 12 from jumping out of windows to escape the blaze.
    April 24, 2013: 2013 Savar building collapse. An eight story factory building collapse on the outskirts of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, killed at least 1126 people.[14] The building contained five garment factories that were manufacturing clothing for the western market.[15]

Mining industry


    March 10, 1906: Courrières mine disaster in Courrières, France. 1,099 workers died, including children, in the worst mine accident in Europe.
    October 14, 1913: Senghenydd Colliery Disaster, the worst mining accident in the United Kingdom; 439 workers died.
    1927 - 1932: Hawks Nest Tunnel Disaster, near Gauley Bridge, West Virginia, United States. Over several years, 476 workers died from silicosis.
    April 26, 1942: Benxihu Colliery disaster in Benxi, Liaoning, China. 1,549 workers died, in the worst coal mine accident ever in the world.
    May 28, 1965: Dhanbad coal mine disaster took place in Jharkhand, India, killing over 300 miners.
    October 21, 1966: Aberfan disaster was a catastrophic collapse of a colliery spoil-tip that occurred in the Welsh village of Aberfan, killing 116 children and 28 adults.
    July 19, 1985: Val di Stava dam collapse took place in the village of Stava, near Tesero, Italy, when two tailings dams used for sedimenting the mud from the nearby Prestavel mine, failed. It resulted in one of Italy's worst disasters, killing 268 people, destroying 63 buildings and demolishing eight bridges.
    May 9, 1993: Nambija mine disaster, Nambija, Ecuador. Approximately 300 people were killed in a land slide
    January 30, 2000: Baia Mare cyanide spill took place in Baia Mare, Romania. The accident, called the worst environmental disaster in Europe since Chernobyl, was a release of 100,000 tons of cyanide contaminated water by an Aurul mining company due to reservoir broke into the rivers Someş, Tisza and Danube. Although no human fatalities were reported, the leak killed up to 80% of aquatic life of some of the affected rivers.
    April 5, 2010: Upper Big Branch Mine disaster, West Virginia, United States. An explosion occurred in Massey Energy's Upper Big Branch coal. Twenty-nine out of thirty-one miners at the site were killed.[16]
    November 19, 2010: Pike River Mine disaster in New Zealand. At 3:45pm, the coal mine exploded. Twenty-nine men underground died immediately, or shortly afterwards, from the blast or from the toxic atmosphere. Two men in the stone drift, some distance from the mine workings, managed to escape. (Extract from Royal Commission of Enquiry Report on Pike River.)

Other industrial disasters

    January 20, 1909: Chicago Crib Disaster. During the construction of a water intake tunnel for the city of Chicago, a fire broke out on a temporary water crib used to access an intermediate point along the tunnel. The fire began in the dynamite magazine and burned the wooden dormitory that housed the tunnel workers. 46 workers survived the fire by jumping into the lake and climbing onto ice floes or the spoil heap near the crib. 29 men were burned beyond recognition, and approximately 60 men died. Most of the remainder drowned or froze to death in the lake and were not recovered.[17][18][19]
    September 21, 1921: Oppau explosion in Germany. Occurred when a tower silo storing 4,500 tonnes of a mixture of ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate fertilizer exploded at a BASF plant in Oppau, now part of Ludwigshafen, Germany, killing 500–600 people and injuring about 2,000 more.
    1932-1968: The Minamata disaster was caused by the dumping of mercury compounds in Minamata Bay, Japan. The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later petrochemical company, was found responsible for polluting the bay for 37 years. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.
    April 16, 1947: Texas City Disaster, Texas. At 9:15 AM an explosion occurred aboard a docked ship named the Grandcamp. The explosion, and subsequent fires and explosions, is referred to as the worst industrial disaster in America. A minimum of 578 people lost their lives and another 3,500 were injured as the blast shattered windows from as far away as 25 mi (40 km). Large steel pieces were thrown more than a mile from the dock. The origin of the explosion was fire in the cargo on board the ship. Detonation of 3,200 tons of ammonium nitrate fertilizer aboard the Grandcamp led to further explosions and fires. The fertilizer shipment was to aid the struggling farmers of Europe recovering from World War II.
    1948: A chemical tank wagon explosion within the BASF's Ludwigshafen, Germany site caused 207 fatalities.
    February 3, 1971: The Thiokol-Woodbine Explosion at a Thiokol chemical plant in Georgia killed 29 people and seriously injured 50.
    June 1, 1974: Flixborough disaster, England. An explosion at a chemical plant near the village of Flixborough killed 28 people and seriously injured another 36.
    July 10, 1976: Seveso disaster, in Seveso, Italy, in a small chemical manufacturing plant of ICMESA. Due to the release of dioxins into the atmosphere and throughout a large section of the Lombard Plain, 3,000 pets and farm animals died and, later, 70,000 animals were slaughtered to prevent dioxins from entering the food chain. In addition, 193 people in the affected areas suffered from chloracne and other symptoms. The disaster lead to the Seveso Directive, which was issued by the European Community and imposed much harsher industrial regulations.
    April 27, 1978: Willow Island disaster. A cooling tower for a power plant under construction in Willow Island, West Virginia collapsed, killing 51 construction workers. The cause was attributed to placing loads on recently poured concrete before it had cured sufficiently to withstand the loads. It is thought to be the largest construction accident in United States history.[20]
    December 3, 1984: The Bhopal disaster in India is one of the largest industrial disasters on record. A runaway reaction in a tank containing poisonous methyl isocyanate caused the pressure relief system to vent large amounts to the atmosphere at a Union Carbide India Limited plant. Estimates of its death toll range from 4,000 to 20,000. The disaster caused the region's human and animal populations severe health problems to the present.
    November 1, 1986: The Sandoz disaster in Schweizerhalle, Switzerland, releasing tons of toxic agrochemicals into the Rhine.
    May 4, 1988: PEPCON disaster in Henderson, Nevada. Massive explosion at a chemical plant killed 2 people.
    June 28, 1988: Auburn, Indiana, improper mixing of chemicals killed four workers at a local metal-plating plant in the worst confined-space industrial accident in U.S. history; a fifth victim died two days later.[21]
    October 23, 1989: Phillips Disaster. Explosion and fire killed 23 and injured 314 in Pasadena, Texas. Registered 3.5 on the Richter scale.
    May 1, 1991: Sterlington, Louisiana. An explosion at the IMC operated Angus Chemical Nitro-paraffin Plant Sterlington, Louisiana killed 8 workers and injured 120 other people. There was severe damage to the surrounding community. The blasts were heard more than 8 miles away.
    September 21, 2001: Toulouse, France. An explosion at the AZF fertilizer factory killed 29 and injured 2,500. Extensive structural damage to nearby neighbourhoods.
    October 19, 2009: Ottawa, Canada. An explosion at the Cliff Central Heating and Cooling Plant. The explosion of a boiler killed one person and three others suffered injuries.
    October 4, 2010: Alumina plant accident. Ajka, Kolontár, Devecser and several other settlements, Hungary. The dam of Magyar Aluminium Zrt.'s red mud reservoir broke and the escaping highly toxic and alkaline (~pH 13) sludge flooded several settlements. There were nine victims including a young girl and hundreds of injuries (mostly chemical burns).
    January 20, 2012: Burns Lake, British Columbia, Canada. At a wood mill two workers were killed and 20 others injured in a fire and explosion. A combustible dust environment lead to the explosion and fire.
    November 8, 2012: Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, 2 people died and 19 injured in an industrial processing plant belonging to Neptune Technologies & Bioressources, a manufacturer of health care products.
    April 17, 2013: Fertiziler plant explosion in West, Texas, an explosion occurred at the West Fertilizer Company storage and distribution facility in West, Texas, 18 miles (29 km) north of Waco while emergency services personnel were responding to a fire at the facility. At least 14 people were killed, more than 160 were injured and more than 150 buildings were damaged or destroyed.
    June 20, 2013: Coteau-du-lac, Quebec, Canada. Two 2 women were killed in a fireworks warehouse explosion.

Scenario of Agriculture in India

India agriculture has an extensive background which goes back to 10 thousand years. At present, in terms of agricultural production, the country holds the second position all over the world. In 2007, agriculture and other associated industries such as lumbering and forestry represented around 16.6% of the Gross Domestic Product of the country. In addition, the sector recruited about 52% of the entire manpower.

Regardless of the fact that there has been a gradual slump in its contribution to the gross domestic product of the country, India agriculture is currently the biggest industry in India. On the whole, it has a key role in the socioeconomic growth of the country.

In terms of agricultural contribution, the following states in India are the most developed states:

• Punjab
• Uttar Pradesh
• Madhya Pradesh
• Haryana
• Bihar
• Andhra Pradesh
• Maharashtra
• West Bengal

All these states play a key role in the agrarian development of India.

The total arable territory in India is 1,269,219 km², which represents about 56.78% of the overall land zone of the country. Arable land in India is diminishing because of continuous strain from an ever-increasing number of inhabitants and growing urbanization.

The overall water surface area of the country is 31440 km² and the country experiences a mean yearly precipitation of 1,100 mm. Irrigation represents 92% of the consumption of water and in 1974, it was 380 km². By 2025, the capacity will probably increase to 1,050 km², with the equilibrium justifying both household and industrial usage.

Agricultural Products in India

India ranks first in producing the following agricultural outputs:

• Anise
• Fresh fruit
• Badian
• Fennel
• Tropical fresh fruit
• Coriander
• Pigeon peas
• Jute
• Spices
• Pulses
• Castor oil seed
• Millets
• Safflower seeds
• Sesame seeds
• Limes
• Lemons
• Dry chillies and peppers
• Cow's milk
• Cashew nuts
• Chickpeas
• Ginger
• Okra
• Guavas
• Turmeric
• Goat milk
• Mangoes
• Meat
• Buffalo milk

In addition, the country also ranks as the top producer of millets such as Bajra, Jowar, and Ragi. In terms of rice production, India holds the second position after China.

About 10% of the fruits produced in the world are produced in India. India holds the first position in the world in producing the following fruits:

• Papaya
• Mangoes
• Sapota
• Banana

India holds the third rank in the world in the production of the following:

• Sorghum
• Tobacco
• Coconuts
• Rapeseed
• Tomatoes
• Hen's eggs

By coffee production, India holds the sixth rank in the world.

India houses the biggest number of livestock in the world and the count is 281 million. In 2008, the country housed the second biggest number of cattle in the world and the count was 175 million livestock.

India ranks as the second biggest producer of the following:

• Cabbages
• Cashews
• Fresh vegetables
• Cotton seed and lint
• Brinjal
• Garlic
• Silk
• Goat meat
• Cardamom
• Nutmeg and Mace
• Wheat
• Onions
• Sugarcane
• Rice
• Dry beans
• Lentil
• Tea
• Groundnut
• Cauliflowers
• Green peas
• Pumpkins
• Potatoes
• Gourds
• Squashes
• Inland fish

The population of India is increasing at a faster pace than its capacity to produce wheat and rice.

India holds the second position in production of wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane, and groundnuts. It is also the second biggest harvester of vegetables and fruit, representing 8.6% and 10.9% of the overall vegetable and fruit production in the world correspondingly.

The country is the top producer of jute, milk, and pulses and holds the second rank in the production of silk and it is the biggest consumer of silk in the world. In 2005, the country produced 77,000 million tons of silk.

What are the initiatives taken by Government?

In a huge country like India, the necessary extent of outlay for the expansion of merchandising, warehousing, and cold storage arrangement is expected to be massive.

The Government of India has been earnestly trying to put into operation different plans to increase investment or outlay in merchandizing and commercializing. Some of the known plans and strategies of the Indian Government include the following:

• Market Research and Information Network
• Construction of Rural Godowns
• Grading and Standardization
• Development/Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is the principal authority in farming and ancillary industries, which comprise learning and research.

The post of the President of the ICAR is held by the Union Minister of Agriculture and at present, Mr. Sharad Pawar is holding the position.

The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) was set up in the year 1905. The institute had a key role in the studies and explorations that resulted in the Green Revolution in the decade of the 1970s. The Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute formulates new methods for the planning of agricultural testing. It also evaluates information associated with cultivation and offers expert advices in statistical methods for livestock and tree raising.

Of late, the Government of India has established Farmers Commission to fully assess the cultivation plan. Nonetheless, the suggestions received varied responses.

Other interesting facts about Indian Agriculture

India enjoys the second position all over the world in terms of agricultural production. During the period of 2009-10, farming and associated industries such as lumbering, forestry, and fishing represented approximately 15.7% of the Gross Domestic Product of the country. These industries also recruited 52.1% of the overall manpower of India.

Outputs on a unitary basis for every type of harvest have increased from 1950. This has been possible since the government has put particular focus on farming operations in the five-year plans (Panchabarshiki Parikalpana) and stable developments in the domains of engineering science, irrigation, implementation of contemporary farming operations, and supply of cultivation loans and grants after the Green Revolution took place in the country.

Nonetheless, worldwide evaluative studies disclose that the mean agricultural output in the country is typically 30%-50% of the maximum average output in the world.

 

 Mandela died on December 5, 2013 at the age of 95, at his home in Houghton, Johannesburg, South Africa surrounded by his family^. His death was announced by President Jacob Zuma

 

When Nelson Mandela died on Thursday, we lost one of the most revered human rights leaders of our time. Global leaders and celebrities reacted to the icon's death:
FULL COVERAGE: Mandela's life and legacy
President Obama: "A man who took history in his hands and bent the arc of the moral universe towards justice."
Bill Clinton: "I will never forget my friend Madiba."
Chelsea Clinton: "My thoughts and prayers are with Graça Machel & the Mandela family. We are all the richer for Madiba's extraordinary life."
Bono: "Mandela played with the highest stakes. He put his family, his country, his time, his life on the line, and he won most of these contests. Stubborn til the end for all the right reasons, it felt like he very nearly outstared his maker. Today, finally, he blinked. And some of us cry, knowing our eyes were opened to so much because of him."
Muhammad Ali: "He made us realize, we are our brother's keeper and that our brothers come in all colors. What I will remember most about Mr. Mandela is that he was a man whose heart, soul and spirit could not be contained or restrained by racial and economic injustices, metal bars or the burden of hate and revenge."
Tiger Woods: "You will always be in my heart Mr. Mandela."
Paul Simon: "He conceived a model for mortal enemies to overcome their hatred and find a way through compassion to rebuild a nation based on truth, justice and the power of forgiveness. His passing should reignite a worldwide effort for peace."
Samuel L. Jackson: "Never met a better person in my life than Nelson Mandela. My sympathy to his family & his country."
Elon Musk: "Rest in peace, Nelson Mandela. A man both good and great."
Jimmy Carter: "His passion for freedom and justice created new hope for generations of oppressed people worldwide, and because of him, South Africa is today one of the world's leading democracies."
Morgan Freeman:"Nelson Mandela was a man of incomparable honor, unconquerable strength, and unyielding resolve---a saint to many, a hero to all who treasure liberty, freedom and the dignity of humankind. As we remember his triumphs, let us, in his memory, not just reflect on how far we've come, but on how far we have to go."
Richard Branson: "Today we lost not only a great man; we also lost one of the world's greatest leaders."
Russell Simmons: "Nelson Mandela was an angel walking on this earth. You were one the greatest teachers this world has ever known. We love you and we miss you"
Bill Gates: "Every time Melinda and I met Nelson Mandela, we left more inspired than ever. His grace and courage changed the world. This is a sad day."
Whoopi Goldberg:"I want 2give the world a hug I was told Mandeba just passed. Nelson Mandela R.I.P. Time for a well earned sleep.Condolences to his family"
Barbara Walters:"A remarkable man and an inspiration to all. Remembering #NelsonMandela"
Quincy Jones:"He was the embodiment of the spirit of 'Ubuntu,' which is the belief that the collective is always more important than the individual. As citizens of the world we should all aspire to that ideal, and all that Nelson Mandela's life represented, taking comfort in the knowledge that in so doing we will always stand in the long shadow of his greatness."
Idris Elba: "What an honor it was to step into the shoes of Nelson Mandela and portray a man who defied odds, broke down barriers, and championed human rights before the eyes of the world. My thoughts and prayers are with his family."
Harvey Weinstein:"One of the privileges of making movies is having the opportunity to immortalize those who have made a profound impact on humanity. We count ourselves unspeakably fortunate to have been immersed in Nelson Mandela's story and legacy."
Desmond Tutu:"He transcended race and class in his personal actions, through his warmth and through his willingness to listen and to empathize with others. He taught us that to respect those with whom we are politically or socially or culturally at odds is not a sign of weakness, but a mark of self-respect."

 

15 of Nelson Mandela's best quotes

Jessica Durando, USA TODAY Network 6:08 p.m. EST December 5, 2013

Nelson Mandela, former president of South Africa and Nobel Peace Prize winner, has died. During his long life, Mandela inspired countless individuals. Here is a collection of quotes that personify his spirit:
1) "Difficulties break some men but make others. No axe is sharp enough to cut the soul of a sinner who keeps on trying, one armed with the hope that he will rise even in the end."
2) "It always seems impossible until it's done."
TIMELINE: The life of Nelson Mandela
ON MANDELA: 'Everyone was in awe of him'
3) "If I had my time over I would do the same again. So would any man who dares call himself a man."
4) "I like friends who have independent minds because they tend to make you see problems from all angles."
5) "Real leaders must be ready to sacrifice all for the freedom of their people."
6) "A fundamental concern for others in our individual and community lives would go a long way in making the world the better place we so passionately dreamt of."
7) "Everyone can rise above their circumstances and achieve success if they are dedicated to and passionate about what they do."
8) "Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world."

9) "I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear."
10) "For to be free is not merely to cast off one's chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others."
11) "Resentment is like drinking poison and then hoping it will kill your enemies."
12) "Lead from the back — and let others believe they are in front."
13) "Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again."
14) "I hate race discrimination most intensely and in all its manifestations. I have fought it all during my life; I fight it now, and will do so until the end of my days."
15) "A good head and a good heart are always a formidable combination."

Biography

Rolihlahla Mandela was born into the Madiba clan in Mvezo, Transkei, on July 18, 1918, to Nonqaphi Nosekeni and Nkosi Mphakanyiswa Gadla Mandela, principal counsellor to the Acting King of the Thembu people, Jongintaba Dalindyebo.
His father died when he was a child and the young Rolihlahla became a ward of Jongintaba at the Great Place in Mqhekezweni. Hearing the elder’s stories of his ancestor’s valour during the wars of resistance, he dreamed also of making his own contribution to the freedom struggle of his people.
He attended primary school in Qunu where his teacher Miss Mdingane gave him the name Nelson, in accordance with the custom to give all school children “Christian” names.
He completed his Junior Certificate at Clarkebury Boarding Institute and went on to Healdtown, a Wesleyan secondary school of some repute, where he matriculated.
Nelson Mandela began his studies for a Bachelor of Arts Degree at the University College of Fort Hare but did not complete the degree there as he was expelled for joining in a student protest. He completed his BA through the University of South Africa and went back to Fort Hare for his graduation in 1943.
On his return to the Great Place at Mkhekezweni the King was furious and said if he didn’t return to Fort Hare he would arrange wives for him and his cousin Justice. They ran away to Johannesburg instead arriving there in 1941. There he worked as a mine security officer and after meeting Walter Sisulu, an estate agent, who introduced him to Lazar Sidelsky. He then did his articles through the firm of attorneys Witkin Eidelman and Sidelsky.
Meanwhile he began studying for an LLB at the University of the Witwatersrand. By his own admission he was a poor student and left the university in 1948 without graduating. He only started studying again through the University of London and also did not complete that degree.
In 1989, while in the last months of his imprisonment, he obtained an LLB through the University of South Africa. He graduated in absentia at a ceremony in Cape Town.
Nelson Mandela, while increasingly politically involved from 1942, only joined the African National Congress in 1944 when he helped formed the ANC Youth League.
In 1944 he married Walter Sisulu’s cousin Evelyn Mase, a nurse. They had two sons Madiba Thembekile ‘Thembi’ and Makgatho and two daughters both called Makaziwe, the first of whom died in infancy. They effectively separated in 1955 and divorced in 1958.
Nelson Mandela rose through the ranks of the ANCYL and through its work the ANC adopted in 1949 a more radical mass-based policy, the Programme of Action.
In 1952 he was chosen at the National Volunteer-in-Chief of the Defiance Campaign with Maulvi Cachalia as his Deputy. This campaign of civil disobedience against six unjust laws was a joint programme between the ANC and the South African Indian Congress. He and 19 others were charged under the Suppression of Communism Act for their part in the campaign and sentenced to nine months hard labour suspended for two years.
A two-year diploma in law on top of his BA allowed Nelson Mandela to practice law and in August 1952 he and Oliver Tambo established South Africa’s first black law firm, Mandela and Tambo.
At the end of 1952 he was banned for the first time. As a restricted person he was only able to secretly watch as the Freedom Charter was adopted at Kliptown on 26 June 1955.
Nelson Mandela was arrested in a countrywide police swoop of 156 activists on 5 December 1955, which led to the 1956 Treason Trial. Men and women of all races found themselves in the dock in the marathon trial that only ended when the last 28 accused, including Mr. Mandela were acquitted on 29 March 1961.
On 21 March 1960 police killed 69 unarmed people in a protest at Sharpeville against the pass laws. This led to the country’s first state of emergency on 31 March and the banning of the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress on 8 April. Nelson Mandela and his colleagues in the Treason Trial were among the thousands detained during the state of emergency.
During the trial on 14 June 1958 Nelson Mandela married a social worker Winnie Madikizela. They had two daughters Zenani and Zindziswa. The couple divorced in 1996.
Days before the end of the Treason Trial Nelson Mandela travelled to Pietermaritzburg to speak at the All-in Africa Conference, which resolved he should write to Prime Minister Verwoerd requesting a non-racial national convention, and to warn that should he not agree there would be a national strike against South Africa becoming a republic. As soon as he and his colleagues were acquitted in the Treason Trial Nelson Mandela went underground and began planning a national strike for 29, 30 and 31 March. In the face of a massive mobilization of state security the strike was called off early. In June 1961 he was asked to lead the armed struggle and helped to establish Umkhonto weSizwe (Spear of the Nation).
On 11 January 1962 using the adopted name David Motsamayi, Nelson Mandela left South Africa secretly. He travelled around Africa and visited England to gain support for the armed struggle. He received military training in Morocco and Ethiopia and returned to South Africa in July 1962. He was arrested in a police roadblock outside Howick on 5 August while returning from KwaZulu-Natal where he briefed ANC President Chief Albert Luthuli about his trip.
He was charged with leaving the country illegally and inciting workers to strike. He was convicted and sentenced to five years imprisonment which he began serving in Pretoria Local Prison. On 27 May 1963 he was transferred to Robben Island and returned to Pretoria on 12 June. Within a month police raided a secret hide-out in Rivonia used by ANC and Communist Party activists and several of his comrades were arrested.
In October 1963 Nelson Mandela joined nine others on trial for sabotage in what became known as the Rivonia Trial.  Facing the death penalty his words to the court at the end of his famous ‘Speech from the Dock’ on 20 April 1964 became immortalized:
“I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
On 11 June 1964 Nelson Mandela and seven other accused Walter Sisulu, Ahmed Kathrada, Govan Mbeki, Raymond Mhlaba, Denis Goldberg, Elias Motsoaledi and Andrew Mlangeni were convicted and the next day were sentenced to life imprisonment. Denis Goldberg was sent to Pretoria Prison because he was white while the others went to Robben Island.
Nelson Mandela’s mother died in 1968 and his eldest son Thembi in 1969. He was not allowed to attend their funerals.
On 31 March 1982 Nelson Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town with Sisulu, Mhlaba and Mlangeni. Kathrada joined them in October. When he returned to the prison in November 1985 after prostate surgery Nelson Mandela was held alone. Justice Minister Kobie Coetsee had visited him in hospital. Later Nelson Mandela initiated talks about an ultimate meeting between the apartheid government and the ANC.
In 1988 he was treated for Tuberculosis and was transferred on 7 December 1988 to a house at Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. He was released from its gates on Sunday 11 February 1990, nine days after the unbanning of the ANC and the PAC and nearly four months after the release of the remaining Rivonia comrades. Throughout his imprisonment he had rejected at least three conditional offers of release.
Nelson Mandela immersed himself into official talks to end white minority rule and in 1991 was elected ANC President to replace his ailing friend Oliver Tambo. In 1993 he and President FW de Klerk jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize and on 27 April 1994 he voted for the first time in his life.
On 10 May 1994 he was inaugurated South Africa’s first democratically elected President. On his 80th birthday in 1998 he married Graça Machel, his third wife.
True to his promise Nelson Mandela stepped down in 1999 after one term as President. He continued to work with the Nelson Mandela Children’s Fund he set up in 1995 and established the Nelson Mandela Foundation and The Mandela-Rhodes Foundation.
In April 2007 his grandson Mandla Mandela became head of the Mvezo Traditional Council at a ceremony at the Mvezo Great Place.
Nelson Mandela never wavered in his devotion to democracy, equality and learning. Despite terrible provocation, he never answered racism with racism. His life has been an inspiration to all who are oppressed and deprived, to all who are opposed to oppression and deprivation.

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• Tactical operations. Did the on-scene incident commander effective order tactical operations? Did the emergency teams implement these orders? What worked? What didn't? Were tactical operations conducted in a timely and coordinated fashion? Do revisions need to be made to tactical procedures? Do tactical work sheets need to be developed or modified?
• Resources. Were human and material resources adequate to conduct the response effectively? Are improvements needed to equipment or facilities? Were mutual aid agreements implemented effectively?
• Support services. Were support services adequate and provided in a timely manner? What is needed to increase the provision of support to a necessary level?
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